Chapter 1: Introduction to Second Language Acquisition

Chapter 1 covers the fundamental concepts of second language acquisition (SLA). The chapter begins by defining SLA and explaining that SLA refers to the process by which individuals acquire proficiency in a language other than their first language. The chapter then provides an overview of the factors that influence SLA, including age, cognitive development, social context, and individual differences. The next section of the chapter discusses the stages of second language acquisition. It explains that SLA typically progresses through various stages, starting with the pre-production stage and culminating in the advanced fluency stage. The chapter provides a detailed explanation of each stage, along with examples of the types of language proficiency that learners demonstrate at each stage.

The chapter also covers multilingual language acquisition, which refers to the acquisition of multiple languages. It explains that multilingual language acquisition is a complex process that is influenced by a variety of factors, including language dominance, language use, and language proficiency. Finally, the chapter discusses the different types of second language acquisition, including natural language acquisition, classroom language acquisition, heritage language acquisition, and autonomous language acquisition. The chapter explains that each type of SLA has unique characteristics and is influenced by different factors.

Guiding questions for discussion

1. What is second language acquisition, and why is it important?
2. How do age and language learning experience affect second language acquisition?
3. What are the different types of second language acquisition, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of each type?
4. What is the role of input in second language acquisition, and how can it be optimized for learners?
5. How do individual differences, such as aptitude and motivation, influence second language acquisition?

A case study

Work with a group of three or four students to handle this case study:

John is a high school student who is struggling to learn English. He has been attending his English class regularly but finds remembering new vocabulary and grammar rules difficult. His teacher has been using behaviorist teaching methods, such as repetition and memorization, but John still feels he is not progressing.

Problem: The behaviorist theory of language learning seems ineffective in helping John learn English, and he struggles to remember new vocabulary and grammar rules. 

What are your suggestions? Explain!

Introduction

Second language acquisition (SLA) refers to the process by which individuals acquire proficiency in a language other than their first language. This process involves a range of factors including age, cognitive development, social context, and individual differences. SLA has been studied by researchers from various disciplines including linguistics, psychology, and education.

Age

The critical period hypothesis (CPH) suggests that there is a specific time period during which language acquisition is most effective, and that this period ends at a certain age. While there is still some debate about the exact timing and nature of the critical period, there is evidence to suggest that it occurs sometime between early childhood and adolescence.

One of the reasons why younger learners may be more successful in acquiring a second language is that their brains are more flexible and adaptable than those of older learners. This allows them to process and store new language information more efficiently and effectively (DeKeyser, 2000).

For example, studies have shown that young children are able to acquire a second language without explicit instruction, simply through exposure to the language in naturalistic settings (Genesee, Paradis, & Crago, 2004). In contrast, older learners may require more structured instruction and explicit grammar rules to achieve similar levels of proficiency.

However, it is important to note that while age is an important factor in second language acquisition, it is not the only factor. There are many examples of older learners who have achieved high levels of proficiency in a second language, and there are also cases where younger learners have struggled to acquire a second language despite extensive exposure and instruction.

Cognitive development

In addition to age, cognitive development also plays an important role in second language acquisition. Individuals who have better cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, and processing speed are more likely to acquire a second language more easily than those who do not (DeKeyser, 2000).

Memory is particularly important for second language acquisition as it allows learners to retain and recall new language information. For example, learners with better working memory are able to process and store more complex language structures, while learners with poorer working memory may struggle with even basic sentence structures (Service, Simola, Metsänheimo, & Maury, 2017).

Attention is also critical in second language acquisition as it allows learners to focus on and process incoming language input. Individuals with better attentional abilities are able to filter out distractions and maintain their focus on the language input, which can facilitate learning (Liu & Perfetti, 2019).

Processing speed is another cognitive ability that is important in second language acquisition as it allows learners to process and respond to language input quickly and accurately. Individuals with faster processing speeds may be better able to keep up with the rapid pace of conversation in a second language, which can facilitate learning (Liu & Perfetti, 2019).

However, it is important to note that cognitive abilities are not fixed and can be improved through practice and training. Therefore, individuals who may initially struggle with certain cognitive tasks related to second language acquisition may still be able to improve their abilities with targeted training and practice.

Social context

The social context in which second language learning takes place is also an important factor in the success of second language acquisition. Individuals who have more opportunities to interact with native speakers of the target language are more likely to achieve higher levels of proficiency than those who do not (Long, 1996).

One reason for this is that language learning is a social activity that requires interaction with others. Through interactions with native speakers, learners are exposed to a wider range of language structures, vocabulary, and cultural norms, which can facilitate their language development (Swain, 2013).

In addition, social interactions provide learners with opportunities to practice their language skills in authentic contexts, which can help to solidify their learning and build their confidence (Ellis & Shintani, 2014).

The social context can also influence learners’ motivation to learn a second language. Learners who are part of a community that values the target language may be more motivated to learn and use the language than those who do not have such support (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2013).

For example, research has shown that students who study abroad in immersion programs, where they have frequent opportunities to interact with native speakers, tend to make faster progress in their second language acquisition than those who study in more traditional classroom settings (Mitchell, Myles, & Marsden, 2013).

The social context plays an important role in second language acquisition, and learners who have more opportunities to interact with native speakers and engage in authentic language use are more likely to achieve higher levels of proficiency.

Individual differences

Individual differences such as motivation, aptitude, and learning styles also play a significant role in second language acquisition. For example, individuals who are highly motivated to learn a second language are more likely to persist with their learning and achieve higher levels of proficiency than those who are less motivated (Dörnyei, 2005).

Motivation can be influenced by a variety of factors, including personal interest in the language, social pressure to learn the language, and perceived usefulness of the language for achieving personal or professional goals (Dörnyei, 2003).

Aptitude refers to the individual’s ability to learn a second language, and research has shown that individuals with higher aptitude are more likely to achieve higher levels of proficiency (Skehan, 1998).

Learning styles also play a role in second language acquisition, with some individuals preferring visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learning strategies (Reid, 1995). For example, visual learners may benefit from the use of diagrams, charts, and other visual aids, while auditory learners may benefit from listening to audio recordings or engaging in conversation practice.

Other individual differences that can impact second language acquisition include age, personality traits, and prior language learning experience (Ellis, 2008).

For example, older learners may struggle with certain aspects of language learning, such as pronunciation, due to cognitive changes that occur with age (Flege, 1999). Additionally, individuals with certain personality traits, such as extraversion or openness to experience, may be more likely to seek out opportunities to use and practice the target language (Dewaele & Furnham, 2000).

Overall, individual differences can have a significant impact on second language acquisition, and understanding these differences can help educators to tailor instruction and support to meet the needs of individual learners.

Stages of second language acquisition

There are several stages of second language acquisition that learners go through. These stages have been described in various models such as the natural order hypothesis (Krashen, 1982) and the interlanguage hypothesis (Selinker, 1972).

The first stage of second language acquisition is the pre-production or silent period. During this stage, learners may have limited or no production of the target language and are typically focused on listening and comprehension (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Research has shown that this stage can last anywhere from a few weeks to several months, depending on various factors such as the learner’s age, prior language learning experience, and social context (Lightbown & Spada, 2006).

During this stage, learners may rely on non-verbal communication, such as gestures and facial expressions, to convey meaning. They may also use simple words or phrases in the target language to express basic needs or ask for clarification. For example, a young child who is learning English as a second language may use gestures and point to objects to indicate what they want, rather than using English words. Similarly, an adult learner who is beginning to learn Spanish may use simple phrases such as “¿Cómo se dice…?” (How do you say…?) to ask for help with vocabulary.

The pre-production or silent period is a crucial stage in second language acquisition, as it allows learners to focus on developing listening and comprehension skills before moving on to production of the target language.

The second stage of second language acquisition is the early production stage. During this stage, learners begin to produce some words and phrases in the target language, typically using simple structures and a limited vocabulary (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Research suggests that this stage typically occurs after the pre-production or silent period and can last for several months (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). During this stage, learners may use formulaic language, such as memorized phrases or chunks, to communicate basic ideas. For example, a learner who is beginning to learn French might use the phrase “Je m’appelle…” (My name is…) or “Comment ça va?” (How are you?) to introduce themselves and ask how someone is doing. They may also use simple verb forms, such as the present tense, to talk about present actions.

In addition to producing simple sentences, learners in the early production stage may also begin to understand and respond to simple questions and commands in the target language. They may use context and nonverbal cues to help them understand the meaning of what is being said. The early production stage is an important milestone in second language acquisition, as learners begin to produce language and communicate basic ideas in the target language.

The third stage of second language acquisition is the speech emergence stage. During this stage, learners begin to produce longer sentences and more complex structures, using a wider range of vocabulary (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Research suggests that this stage typically occurs several months after the early production stage and can last for up to a year (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Learners in this stage may still make errors, but they are more focused on accuracy and may use self-correction to fix mistakes.

For example, a learner who is in the speech emergence stage of learning Spanish may use more complex verb forms, such as the past tense, to talk about past events. They may also use more varied sentence structures, such as conditional or subjunctive clauses, to express more nuanced ideas. During the speech emergence stage, learners may also begin to engage in more extended conversations and express more complex thoughts and opinions. They may use a greater range of strategies, such as circumlocution, to communicate when they don’t know a specific word.

The speech emergence stage represents a significant milestone in second language acquisition, as learners begin to produce longer and more complex sentences and express more sophisticated ideas in the target language.

The fourth stage of second language acquisition is the intermediate fluency stage. During this stage, learners demonstrate greater fluency and accuracy in the target language. Learners in this stage are able to communicate effectively in most situations and have a greater understanding of the nuances of the language (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Research suggests that this stage typically occurs after one to two years of consistent exposure to the target language and can last for several years (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Learners in this stage may still make errors, but they are more focused on communicating effectively and can understand and produce a wider range of complex structures.

For example, a learner who is in the intermediate fluency stage of learning French may use idiomatic expressions to convey nuanced meanings, such as “avoir le cœur sur la main” to describe someone who is generous. They may also be able to use more complex sentence structures, such as subordinate clauses or passive voice. During the intermediate fluency stage, learners may also begin to develop greater cultural competence and understanding of social norms in the target language community. They may become more comfortable using the language in a variety of settings and may be able to use humor and irony to communicate more effectively.

The intermediate fluency stage represents a significant achievement in second language acquisition, as learners begin to demonstrate greater accuracy and fluency in the target language, as well as a deeper understanding of the culture and social norms associated with the language.

The final stage of second language acquisition is the advanced fluency stage, which is characterized by near-native proficiency in the target language (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Learners in this stage are able to understand and produce complex linguistic structures and demonstrate a high degree of fluency and accuracy in their use of the language (Lightbown & Spada, 2006).

Research suggests that achieving advanced fluency in a second language can take several years of consistent practice and immersion in the target language community (DeKeyser, 2000). Learners in this stage may have a sophisticated understanding of the culture and social norms associated with the language, as well as the ability to understand and produce a wide range of idiomatic expressions and nuanced meanings. For example, a learner who has achieved advanced fluency in Spanish may be able to use subjunctive mood to convey subtle meanings, such as doubt or uncertainty, and use idiomatic expressions to convey nuanced meanings in social situations.

In addition to linguistic and cultural competence, learners in the advanced fluency stage may also have a high degree of communicative competence, or the ability to use language effectively in a variety of settings (Canale & Swain, 1980). They may be able to use humor, irony, and other rhetorical devices to convey complex meanings and engage in sophisticated discourse with native speakers of the target language. The advanced fluency stage represents a significant achievement in second language acquisition and requires a high degree of commitment and dedication to the learning process.

In short, second language acquisition is a complex process that is influenced by a range of factors including age, cognitive development, social context, and individual differences. Understanding the stages of second language acquisition can help teachers to design more effective language teaching programs and to better support their students’ language learning needs.

Multilingual language acquisition

Multilingual language acquisition refers to the process of acquiring more than one language, either simultaneously or sequentially, and it can occur in a variety of contexts. Bilingualism is a form of multilingualism where an individual speaks and understands two languages. The acquisition of multiple languages is becoming increasingly common, especially in multicultural and multilingual societies, where it is often necessary to communicate in different languages for both personal and professional reasons.

Research has shown that the acquisition of multiple languages can have various cognitive, linguistic, and social benefits. For example, studies have demonstrated that bilingual individuals may have improved cognitive flexibility, executive functioning, and metalinguistic awareness (Bialystok, 2017). In addition, being multilingual can provide advantages in communication, travel, and employment opportunities, among other things.

Bilingual development can occur in different ways, depending on the context in which it takes place. Simultaneous bilingualism refers to the acquisition of two languages from birth or during early childhood, and it often occurs in bilingual households or communities where both languages are commonly used. For example, a child growing up in a family where the parents speak different languages may acquire both languages simultaneously.

Sequential bilingualism, on the other hand, refers to the acquisition of a second language after the first language has been established. This can occur in a variety of contexts, such as through formal language instruction or immersion programs, or through natural exposure to a second language in a different environment, such as moving to a new country.

Research has also shown that there may be differences in the way that languages are acquired in bilingual development compared to monolingual development. For example, bilingual children may demonstrate a delay in the acquisition of certain grammatical structures in one or both languages, but eventually catch up to their monolingual peers (Paradis & Genesee, 2010). In addition, bilingual children may demonstrate greater code-switching abilities, or the ability to switch between languages in different contexts (Grosjean, 2010).

Multilingual language acquisition is a complex process that is influenced by a range of factors, including age of acquisition, language input, and individual differences. While it can pose unique challenges, it can also provide numerous cognitive, linguistic, and social benefits for individuals who acquire multiple languages.

Bilingual development

Bilingual development refers to the process by which individuals acquire and use two or more languages. It is important to note that bilingual development can occur in different contexts, including simultaneous bilingualism, sequential bilingualism, and additive bilingualism (Paradis, 2011).

Simultaneous bilingualism occurs when a child learns two languages at the same time from birth or early infancy. In this case, the child’s exposure to both languages is balanced, and they learn them in parallel. For example, a child growing up in a bilingual household where both parents speak different languages would be exposed to both languages from birth.

Sequential bilingualism, on the other hand, occurs when a child learns one language first, and then later acquires a second language. This can happen, for example, when a family moves to a new country and the child learns the dominant language of that country in addition to their first language.

Additive bilingualism refers to a situation where a child’s second language learning enhances or adds to their existing language skills. For example, a child who speaks Spanish as their first language and learns English as a second language in school would be developing additive bilingualism.

Research has shown that bilingual development can have cognitive, linguistic, and social benefits. Bilingualism has been associated with improved cognitive flexibility, executive function, and problem-solving abilities (Bialystok, 2009). Additionally, bilingual individuals have been shown to have a better understanding of language structures and are more adept at navigating between different linguistic and cultural contexts.

Furthermore, bilingualism has been shown to have positive effects on social development. For example, bilingual individuals have been shown to have more empathy towards individuals from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds (Duñabeitia et al., 2014).

In terms of language development, bilingual children tend to have similar or even better linguistic skills in each of their languages than monolingual children (Paradis, 2011). For example, bilingual children have been shown to have a better understanding of grammatical structures and a more extensive vocabulary than their monolingual peers (Genesee et al., 2011).

Bilingual development is a complex and dynamic process that can have many benefits for individuals. It is important to support bilingualism in education and society to ensure that individuals can develop and maintain their linguistic and cultural identities.

The role of age

The role of age is a significant factor in second language acquisition (SLA). According to the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH), there is a biologically determined period during which language acquisition is most effective. This period is believed to be from birth to approximately puberty, and after this period, language acquisition becomes more difficult (Lenneberg, 1967). This hypothesis suggests that the earlier a person begins learning a second language, the more likely they are to achieve native-like proficiency.

Research has shown that younger learners tend to acquire second languages more easily and achieve higher levels of proficiency than older learners (Ellis, 2008). For example, studies have found that children who begin learning a second language before the age of six or seven have a greater chance of becoming fluent speakers than those who begin later (Hakuta & Diaz, 1985). This is because young learners have more flexible language learning mechanisms and a greater capacity for language acquisition than older learners (Johnson & Newport, 1989).

However, it is important to note that age is not the only factor that influences SLA. Other factors, such as cognitive development, social context, and individual differences, also play a role in the language acquisition process.

In brief, age is an important factor in SLA, and younger learners generally have an advantage in acquiring a second language. However, other factors should also be considered, and it is possible for older learners to achieve high levels of proficiency with effective instruction and practice.

Bilingualism

Bilingualism refers to the ability of an individual to use two or more languages proficiently. In recent years, bilingualism has become a subject of great interest in the fields of psychology, linguistics, and education due to its potential cognitive, linguistic, and social benefits. Bilingualism has been shown to enhance cognitive flexibility, metalinguistic awareness, and problem-solving skills (Bialystok, 2017). It has also been linked to a delayed onset of cognitive decline in old age (Alladi et al., 2013).

Bilingualism can be acquired in various ways, such as simultaneous bilingualism, where a child acquires two languages at the same time from birth, or sequential bilingualism, where a child acquires a second language after the first language has already been established. Bilingualism can also be acquired later in life, through language learning or immersion programs.

Bilingualism can have both linguistic and social benefits. Linguistically, bilinguals have been shown to have a better understanding of the grammatical structure of language and to be more skilled in language processing and comprehension (Bialystok, 2017). Socially, bilingualism can facilitate communication and understanding across different cultures, which can be beneficial in today’s globalized world.

However, bilingualism can also present challenges, such as language dominance, where one language is used more frequently than the other, and language interference, where the rules and structures of one language may influence the use of the other language. These challenges can be mitigated through language maintenance and practice.

Bilingualism has become an important area of research due to its potential benefits for cognitive and linguistic development, as well as its social advantages in a globalized world.

Cognitive development

Cognitive development refers to the growth and development of cognitive abilities, such as perception, memory, attention, problem-solving, and decision-making, throughout the lifespan (Piaget, 1952). Cognitive development is crucial for individuals to acquire and use language effectively (DeKeyser, 2000).

Memory is one cognitive ability that is particularly important in second language acquisition (SLA). Language learners must retain new vocabulary, grammar rules, and discourse patterns in their working memory in order to produce coherent speech (Baddeley, 1986). Attention is another important cognitive ability in SLA. Learners must be able to focus their attention on the relevant aspects of the target language, such as pronunciation, grammar, and meaning, in order to understand and produce speech (Posner & Rothbart, 2007).

Processing speed is another cognitive ability that can affect language learning. Learners who can process information more quickly may be able to comprehend and produce language more rapidly (Salthouse, 1996). However, it is important to note that cognitive abilities are not fixed, and they can be developed and improved through training and practice (DeKeyser, 2000).

In short, cognitive development is important for second language acquisition, as it enables learners to process and retain new information and use it effectively in communication. Learners with better cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, and processing speed are more likely to acquire a second language more easily (DeKeyser, 2000).

Different Types of Second Language Acquisition

Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the process by which individuals learn a language other than their first language. SLA can occur in a variety of contexts, such as in a classroom, in an immersive environment, or through informal language exposure. Different types of SLA can lead to different levels of proficiency and may require different learning strategies. Understanding the different types of SLA can help learners and educators choose the most effective methods and approaches for language learning. There are about five different types of SLA, including natural language acquisition, classroom language acquisition, heritage language acquisition, autonomous language acquisition, and incidental acquisition.

Natural language acquisition

Natural language acquisition refers to the process of learning a second language through natural, informal means rather than through formal instruction. In this type of SLA, learners are immersed in the target language environment and engage in authentic communication with native speakers. This type of language acquisition can occur both in the home country and abroad.

Research suggests that natural language acquisition is an effective way to acquire a second language, particularly for developing communicative skills and pragmatic competence (Ellis, 1997). Furthermore, natural language acquisition is often associated with motivation and a positive attitude towards learning, as learners engage in language learning out of personal interest or need (Krashen, 1982).

For example, a person who moves to a foreign country and is surrounded by the target language on a daily basis may develop language proficiency through natural language acquisition. They may learn the language by conversing with locals, listening to the radio or watching TV shows in the target language. Over time, this type of language acquisition can lead to a high level of proficiency, particularly in conversational skills.

Classroom language acquisition

Classroom language acquisition is a type of second language acquisition that takes place in a formal setting such as a language classroom. This approach to SLA is typically associated with more structured and systematic instruction, with a focus on explicit teaching of grammar, vocabulary, and reading and writing skills (Lightbown & Spada, 2013). Classroom language acquisition may involve various methods and approaches, such as communicative language teaching, task-based learning, or content-based instruction.

One advantage of classroom language acquisition is that learners have access to expert instruction and guidance from a trained teacher, who can provide feedback and support as they learn the target language. This approach also provides a structured and sequenced curriculum, which can help learners develop their language skills in a systematic way.

However, one potential disadvantage of classroom language acquisition is that learners may have limited opportunities for authentic communication in the target language, which can hinder their ability to develop fluency and communicative competence. Learners may also be limited in their exposure to the cultural and social aspects of the target language community, which can impact their overall language proficiency (Kramsch, 1993).

Examples of classroom language acquisition can be found in traditional language classes offered at schools, universities, or language institutes. Learners may be enrolled in courses ranging from beginner to advanced levels, with a focus on developing their listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Instructors may use a variety of teaching materials and methods, such as textbooks, audio and video resources, interactive activities, and assessments to evaluate learners’ progress.

Heritage Language Acquisition

Heritage language acquisition (HLA) is the process of acquiring and maintaining a language that is spoken within one’s family or cultural community (Valdés, 2001). HLA typically occurs in an informal setting, such as within the home or community, and can involve a mix of formal and informal learning experiences (Kondo-Brown, 2005).

Heritage language learners (HLLs) may have a different linguistic and cultural background than the majority population in the country where they reside, and may have limited opportunities to use and develop their heritage language outside of the home or community (Valdés, 2001). As a result, HLLs may experience language loss or attrition if they do not have opportunities to maintain and develop their heritage language skills.

Research has shown that HLLs may have unique language learning needs and challenges, and may benefit from different instructional approaches than other types of second language learners (Kondo-Brown, 2005). For example, HLLs may have already developed some level of proficiency in their heritage language, and may benefit from instruction that builds on their existing knowledge and skills. HLLs may also benefit from instruction that emphasizes the cultural and social aspects of the language, as well as from opportunities to use their heritage language in authentic communicative situations (Valdés, 2001).

Examples of HLA include a child of immigrant parents learning and maintaining their parents’ native language at home, or a member of a cultural community learning and maintaining the language of their ancestral homeland.

Autonomous Language Acquisition

Autonomous language acquisition refers to the process of learning a second language in a self-directed and self-regulated manner, without the guidance of a formal teacher or curriculum. This approach emphasizes learner autonomy and agency, allowing individuals to tailor their language learning experience to their own needs and goals.

One common example of autonomous language acquisition is through the use of language learning apps or software, such as Duolingo or Rosetta Stone. These programs provide learners with interactive and engaging activities that focus on developing various language skills, such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

Another example is participating in language exchange programs, such as conversation partners or language exchange websites, where learners can practice speaking and interacting with native speakers of the target language.

Research has shown that autonomous language acquisition can be a highly effective way of learning a second language, particularly for motivated and self-directed learners (Benson, 2011). However, it is important to note that this approach may not be suitable for all learners, and may require a certain level of proficiency in the target language in order to be effective.

Overall, autonomous language acquisition highlights the importance of learner autonomy and self-direction in the language learning process, and provides learners with a range of tools and resources to help them achieve their language learning goals.

Incidental Acquisition

Incidental acquisition refers to the acquisition of a second language that occurs unintentionally or indirectly through exposure to the language in everyday situations, without any specific effort or focus on language learning. This can happen, for example, when a person travels to a foreign country and is exposed to the local language while shopping, ordering food, or interacting with locals.

Although incidental acquisition is considered a less structured and less effective way to learn a language compared to intentional language learning, it can still contribute to language development. Research has shown that learners can pick up new vocabulary and basic grammatical structures through incidental exposure to a language (Schmidt, 2001). However, incidental acquisition is often limited to basic communication skills and may not lead to a deeper understanding of the language.

In short, incidental acquisition may be a useful way to supplement other forms of language learning, but it is not sufficient on its own for achieving a high level of proficiency in a second language.

Problem-solving 1

Problem: A language learner is struggling to make progress in their second language acquisition journey, despite attending language classes regularly and using language learning resources outside of class.

What are you going to do to help this student overcome his/her struggle?

 

Guiding questions to help review the lesson

1. What is second language acquisition (SLA)?
2. What are the different types of SLA?
3. How does age affect SLA?
4. What are the stages of SLA?
5. What are the different stages of second language acquisition?
6. What are the different types of second language acquisition?
7. How does age affect second language acquisition?
8. What is the relationship between bilingualism and cognitive development?
9. How does bilingualism affect cognitive development?
10. What is heritage language acquisition?
11. How does classroom language acquisition differ from natural language acquisition?
12. How can autonomous language acquisition be effective?

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Chapter 1 covers the fundamental concepts of second language acquisition (SLA). The chapter begins by defining SLA and explaining that SLA refers to the process by which individuals acquire proficiency in a language other than their first language. The chapter then provides an overview of the factors that influence SLA, including age, cognitive development, social…