Chapter 9 – Structure of a Thesis

The conventional structure of an M.A. or Ph.D. thesis in language education is divided into many components. A short summary of the research topic, research questions, aims, and importance of the study are given in the Introduction, the first part. The literature review part offers a theoretical foundation for the study as well as a summary and analysis of earlier research on the topic at hand. The study design, participants, data collecting methods, research tools, and data analysis techniques are all described in the methodology section.

The researcher provides the data that has been evaluated and enumerates the key conclusions of the study in the Results and Findings section. The Discussion section offers an explanation of the findings and connects the findings to the research questions, hypotheses, and literature review. The study’s major conclusions are outlined in the Conclusion section, along with their consequences and potential directions for further investigation. The thesis’s sources are all included in the References section, while the Appendices part includes further information including research tools, permission forms, and raw data. Planning ahead and paying close attention to detail in each area are essential for a well-written and well-structured thesis on language education. The thesis outline is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Outline of a thesis

Section	Potential Descriptions
Introduction	Background and context of the study, research problem, the purpose of the study, research questions/hypotheses
Literature review	Overview of existing literature, theoretical framework, research gaps, research methods, and findings
Methodology	Research design, research participants and sampling, research procedures, research instruments, validity, and reliability
Results and findings	Summary of participant information, presentation of results, interpretation of the findings
Discussion	Summary of the findings, interpretation of the results, relation to research questions/hypotheses, limitations
Conclusion	Summary of the study, implications of the findings, recommendations for future research and practice
References	List of sources cited in the study
Appendices	Supplementary materials such as research instruments, data, and additional analyses

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION

In language instruction, a thesis introduction helps readers have a clear idea of the study subject, its importance, and the research issues that will be answered. Swales and Feak (2012) said that the introduction should “establish the context and rationale for the research, state the research question and objectives, provide a thorough review of relevant literature, and establish the significance of the research” (p. 46).

The introduction often starts out with a succinct summary of the research issue to help readers grasp the study’s aims and objectives. This is followed by a list of the research questions that will be addressed, which act as a roadmap for the investigation and a framework for it.

The study’s contribution to earlier research in the topic is also highlighted in the introduction’s contextualization of the study within a broader field of inquiry. This may be accomplished by conducting a comprehensive evaluation of the relevant literature, which identifies the important topics, disputes, and research gaps that the study seeks to fill.

The conclusion summarizes the study’s relevance and contributions and describes how the study will further our understanding of the subject. This may be accomplished by outlining the research’s possible ramifications or by emphasizing how it will advance either theory or practice in the field of teaching foreign languages.

In addition, the introduction offers a detailed analysis of the relevant literature, outlining the main arguments and disputes in the discipline of teaching English as a second language as well as any knowledge gaps the study seeks to fill. The relevance of the study and how it will help comprehend the difficulties and potential for English language education in China are covered by the authors as they wrap up the introduction.

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The background and context portion in language instruction gives readers a greater comprehension of the social, cultural, and historical influences that have influenced the study subject. This section should, in accordance with the advice provided by Creswell and Creswell (2017), “situate the study in a larger context, explaining the broader issues and themes that relate to the research question” (p. 77).

The explanation of pertinent ideas and research that shape the study is one important part of the background and context section. This may include an examination of important theoretical frameworks, such as communicative language teaching or task-based language teaching, that have been used to comprehend language training. The part could also include an analysis of pertinent empirical research, highlighting significant discoveries and discussions that influence the topic.

The consideration of the policy circumstances that influence language teaching techniques is another crucial component of the background and context part. Reviewing national, institutional, and other pertinent educational or social policies that have an influence on language instruction may be part of this process.

Last but not least, the background and context part could also go into more general social, cultural, and historical influences on language teaching methods. This might include talking about topics like linguistic ideology, power dynamics, or globalization that may affect how language is taught and learnt in various circumstances.

For instance, a study that successfully places the research into a wider context by using the background and context section. English has become a widely spoken language, and the author starts by outlining the historical and social causes that have led to its development and their effects on language teaching techniques. The limits of current methodologies and the need for a more inclusive and pluralistic approach are highlighted in his subsequent critical examination of the ideas and research already in existence on English language instruction. The author then discusses how the findings may have ramifications for problems like linguistic ideology and identity in a broader social and political context.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

The identification of the problem(s) in language instruction is a crucial part of a research article or thesis that highlights the particular problems or difficulties that the study attempts to solve. The problem(s) under investigation are succinctly described in this part, together with an explanation of their significance to the area of language instruction.

Creswell & Creswell (2017) assert that the issue statement has to be “clear, concise, and focused” (p. 82). It should be grounded in current scholarship and empirical study, and it should be located within the larger context of the research issue.

A clear and precise research question, or group of questions, that the study seeks to answer, is often included in the issue statement. These research questions have to be in line with the study’s goals and supported by an extensive evaluation of the literature. Additionally, the issue statement must include the precise variables under investigation, their relationships, and the justification for their significance to the research.

Consider a research study by Liu and Brown (2015) on teacher feedback in second-language writing to demonstrate the significance of the description of the issue in language training. In their research, the authors found a gap in the literature about how teacher feedback techniques improve students’ motivation and writing engagement. The authors created a series of study questions based on this issue in order to investigate the connection between instructor feedback techniques, student motivation, and involvement in second-language writing. The authors suggested that their study was significant because it had the potential to enhance student results and guide language teaching strategies. They set their research within the wider framework of second language writing research.

In general, the problem statement is an important part of a research paper or thesis in language instruction. It specifies the precise issue(s) under investigation and offers a succinct and unambiguous summary of the research questions, factors, and justification for the study.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

The component of a research paper or thesis in language instruction that describes the precise aims and objectives of the study is called the purpose of the study. The research’s purpose statement highlights its motivation and how it will further the study of language instruction in general.

Leedy, Ormrod, and Johnson (2019) contend that the purpose statement has to be straightforward, precise, and succinct. It should also be guided by the research questions and compatible with the overall purpose and reason of the investigation.

The particular goals and objectives that the research seeks to accomplish are usually included in the purpose statement. These aims and objectives must be in line with the research questions and be supported by a comprehensive study of the literature. The research’s contribution to the area of language instruction should be described in the purpose statement, along with any prospective applications.

Consider a research by Ellis and Shintani (2013) on task-based language instruction to demonstrate the significance of the purpose statement in language training. The lack of agreement on the concept and use of task-based language instruction was an issue the authors found in the existing literature, which they addressed in their research. Based on this issue, the authors created a mission statement that set out to define task-based language education in detail and to suggest practical implementation methods. In addition to expanding our knowledge of successful language teaching techniques, the authors described how their study will benefit the profession of language education by offering language instructors useful advice.

The goal statement, in general, is an important part of a research paper or thesis in language instruction. It shows how the research will benefit the larger area of language instruction as well as outlining the precise aims and objectives of the study.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

The particular topics that the research wants to address and the hypotheses that will drive the study are outlined in the research questions and hypotheses portion of a research article or thesis in language instruction. The research issue, purpose statement, and literature review all influence the research questions and hypotheses, which provide a precise and narrow focus for the study.

Creswell & Creswell (2017) assert that study hypotheses and questions should be “clear, concise, and specific” (p. 78). They should be phrased in a manner that enables them to be addressed by the study’s methodology and data analysis, and they should be connected to the goal statement.

While hypotheses provide predictions regarding the connection between variables, research questions often enquire about it. The efficacy of various teaching techniques, the effects of cultural variations on language acquisition, and the importance of motivation in language learning are just a few examples of the many issues that might be the subject of research questions and hypotheses in the field of language education.

For instance, let’s say that a study on the effect of language learning techniques on the performance of EFL learners came up with the following research questions and hypotheses:

Research questions:

1. What are the language learning techniques that EFL students employ?
2. Is there a connection between language learners’ performance and the use of language learning strategies?
3. How does the performance of EFL students relate to the use of certain language learning strategies?

Hypotheses:

1. EFL students will do better on language tasks if they apply more language learning techniques.
2. EFL students who use specialized language learning techniques, such as metacognitive techniques, outperform those who do not on language-related tasks.

The study’s techniques and data analysis are directed by the research questions and hypotheses, which also provide the study a defined and organized orientation. By filling in particular knowledge gaps, they also enable the study to make significant contributions to the larger area of language instruction.

SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION

An explanation of the study’s relevance and potential contribution to the field is provided in the significance and contribution part of a research article or thesis in language education. This part, which usually comes after the research questions and hypotheses, should provide a convincing case for why the study is necessary and how it will increase scientific knowledge and understanding.

The importance and contribution section should, in the words of Swales and Feak (2012), “explain why the research matters and how it adds to what is already known about the topic” (p. 146). The research’s possible effects on practice and policy related to language instruction should also be highlighted in this section.

The relevance and contribution part in language teaching could go through the study’s possible effects on curriculum design, language evaluation, or teacher preparation. It could also point out any knowledge gaps the study attempts to close or highlight any novel or underutilized research techniques it makes use of.

The following potential relevance and contributions, for instance, were noted by a research on the results of explicit training of vocabulary acquisition techniques in a university EFL context:

Significance:

1. The study fills a research gap on the efficiency of explicit teaching of vocabulary acquisition techniques in a Korean EFL environment.
2. By highlighting the advantages of specific teaching of vocabulary acquisition procedures in boosting students’ vocabulary knowledge and usage, the research offers real-world implications for EFL instructors.
3. The research adds to the current debate over how to teach vocabulary effectively in EFL environments.

Contribution:

1. To assess the efficacy of explicit teaching of vocabulary acquisition techniques, the study uses a pre-test and post-test design with a control group.
2. The research offers empirical proof of the value of explicit teaching, which aids in the development of vocabulary acquisition strategy training in EFL environments.

The research’s value and relevance to the area of language instruction should be amply shown in the significance and contribution section, which should also provide a convincing justification for the study’s methodology and conclusions.

TERMINOLOGIES

To ensure that readers comprehend the topic at hand, it is crucial in academic writing to clarify any significant terms or terminology utilized in the research. The definitions section normally comes after the problem statement and before the research questions and hypotheses in the introduction of a thesis or research paper.

Creswell & Creswell (2017) assert that it’s critical to define essential phrases in order to create a shared understanding of the terminology utilized in the study. This section could also include any questions or disagreements over how these phrases should be used or defined.

Definitions of important terms like communicative competence, language acquisition, task-based language teaching, or teacher cognition may be included in the definitions section in the context of language teaching. These definitions could be based on already-established theoretical frameworks or current empirical studies in the area.

For instance, a definitions section in a study on the role of language teachers’ beliefs in teaching writing included definitions of important terms like teacher beliefs, metacognition, and genre, such as “teacher beliefs refer to the personal theories or assumptions that teachers hold about teaching and learning.”

In order to prevent misunderstandings or confusion among readers and to ensure that they have a common grasp of the terminology used in the study, it is important to define essential words in detail.

Table 2: A summary of the chapter on introduction

Section	Description
Introduction	Introduces the topic and research questions of the study, contextualizes the research within the larger field of study, and provides a brief overview of the study’s significance and contributions.
Background and Context	Discusses the background and context of the study, including relevant theories, research, and policy contexts that inform the research.
Statement of the Problem	Clearly articulates the research problem or gap in the literature that the study addresses, and provides a rationale for the significance of the problem.
Purpose of the Study	States the overall purpose or aims of the study, including any specific research questions or hypotheses to be addressed.
Research Questions and Hypotheses	States the research questions and hypotheses that guide the study, and outlines how the study will address these questions and hypotheses.
Significance and Contribution	Describes the potential significance and contributions of the study to the field, and discusses how the study will advance knowledge and understanding in the field.
Definitions of Terminologies	Provides clear definitions of key terms used in the study, drawing on existing theoretical frameworks or empirical research in the field.

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

A research paper’s literature review chapter is crucial since it establishes the basis for the investigation. This chapter offers a thorough examination and synthesis of the body of prior research on the subject. The purpose of this chapter is to build a theoretical framework that will direct the study while also identifying the gaps and restrictions in the existing literature.

THEORETICAL REVIEW

A language teaching thesis must include theoretical reviews since they offer a solid theoretical framework for the research and show that the author is aware of the status of the subject. The main ideas or viewpoints pertinent to the study issue should be the focus of a theoretical review, which should also critically evaluate the body of literature to find any points of agreement or disagreement amongst writers.

Examining several theories of second language acquisition, such as Krashen’s Input Hypothesis or Long’s Interaction Hypothesis, is one example of a theoretical review in language education. The review would conduct a critical analysis of the research on these ideas, noting areas of consensus and divergence among writers and assessing the merits and weaknesses of each theory.

The function of feedback in language acquisition might be the subject of yet another theoretical examination. The review would critically evaluate the current literature on the subject and look at various theoretical views on feedback, including the cognitive and social elements of feedback. The review may identify points of agreement or disagreement between various writers and assess the value of various forms of feedback for language acquisition.

The theoretical review in both cases aims to provide a solid theoretical framework for the study, proving the researcher’s familiarity with the status of the subject, and offering support for the researcher’s own theoretical framework or viewpoint.

Theoretical reviews may look at different ideas about learning a second language, language pedagogy, or the function of language in society in the context of teaching languages. For instance, a theoretical study may look at the distinctions between acquiring grammatical structures explicitly and implicitly or the function of input and interaction in language development. The study may also look at the theoretical foundations of various teaching philosophies or strategies, including task-based language education or content-based instruction.

Theoretical evaluations need to critically evaluate the ideas or viewpoints given in the literature rather than just summarizing what has already been written. This study could include determining the points of agreement or disagreement between several writers or assessing the benefits and drawbacks of various ideas or models. Theoretical reviews must also point out any gaps or contradictions in the existing literature and justify the researcher’s own theoretical framework or point of view.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework presents the theoretical viewpoint that will direct the investigation, making it a crucial part of a thesis on language education. In addition to providing a foundation for comprehending the research questions and hypotheses, the theoretical framework outlines the important ideas, presumptions, and propositions that support the study design. It allows the researcher to choose the best data analysis strategies and research methodologies to apply to the study.

Theoretical frameworks in language education may be based on a particular theory or viewpoint on language acquisition, such as constructivism, sociocultural theory, or cognitive theory. Key ideas from the selected theory, such as the importance of input, interaction, or feedback in language acquisition, may be pointed out by the researcher. The theoretical framework could also make generalizations about how language learning and instruction function, such as the value of learner-centered education or the use of technology.

The main ideas or viewpoints pertinent to the study issue should be the focus of a theoretical review, which should also critically evaluate the body of literature to find any points of agreement or disagreement amongst writers.

Consider yet another example of a theoretical structure for a thesis on the use of mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) in the context of English as a foreign language (EFL). Sociocultural theory, which stresses the significance of social interaction and environment in learning, serves as the theoretical foundation for this research. The two main ideas from this theory that serve as the study’s compass are scaffolding and mediation, both of which speak to the assistance that individuals with greater expertise may provide in a learner’s progress. The framework also makes the assumption that students can actively create their own knowledge while studying EFL using mobile devices. With an emphasis on the function of teacher mediation in fostering learner interaction and feedback, the research seeks to ascertain the efficacy of MALL in encouraging learner autonomy and engagement.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The conceptual framework portion of a thesis in language teaching is where the researcher outlines the theoretical framework that will direct the study and how it will be utilized to organize the research. Models, frameworks, or typologies that will be utilized to structure the research and evaluate the data are often included in this part.

In a research by Pham and Do (2021) titled “The Impacts of Task-based Instruction on Students’ Grammatical Performances in Speaking and Writing Skills: A Quasi-Experimental Study,” for instance, the conceptual framework was based on the notion of task-based language teaching (TBLT). This framework was utilized by the writers to set up the investigation and examine the information obtained from a quasi-experimental research.

In both cases, the theoretical viewpoint that will direct the investigation and how it will be used to shape the research is described in the conceptual framework section in a clear and orderly manner. It aids readers in comprehending the theoretical underpinnings of the study and the methodology used to address the research issues.

REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES

The objective of the section on reviews of prior studies is to show that the researcher is aware of the status of the area at the time it was studied as well as to highlight important topics, arguments, and knowledge gaps. This section offers a critical evaluation of recent research, stressing its advantages and disadvantages and pointing out areas that need further study. It also helps to highlight the specific contribution that the study will make and to place the research within the larger context of the area.

A thesis in language instruction must include a review of prior research since it offers a thorough and critical critique of the field’s body of knowledge. This part attempts to illustrate the researcher’s comprehension of the present status of the area and to highlight major topics, arguments, and knowledge gaps.

Similar to this, Setyowati and Sukmawan’s (2019) study aims to discuss the theoretical relationship between Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and authentic materials that language teachers can use to teach writing in the classroom, as well as the prior research on the use of authentic materials for teaching writing, the kinds of authentic materials that are suitable for teaching writing, and the benefits and drawbacks of doing so. This study employed a qualitative research approach with an emphasis on content analysis, as well as human instruments and documentation. Through a thorough review of the literature, it was discovered that: 1) using real materials in the classroom is a key component of CBI; 2) real materials are effective for teaching procedure texts, descriptive texts, and essays; 3) real materials can be divided into audio, visual, and printed categories; and 4) while real materials have many benefits, they also present challenges for teachers.

In both cases, the writers conduct in-depth reviews of pertinent literature, highlighting major ideas, contentious issues, and knowledge gaps. The framework for the study is established in this area of the thesis, which also serves as a foundation for the formulation of research questions and hypotheses.

RESEARCH GAPS

A thesis on language teaching’s “Research Gaps” section tries to point out any gaps or restrictions in the current literature and to explain why the research is required. It is crucial to indicate that the researcher is aware of the present status of the subject and how the planned study would help to close knowledge gaps. This section may draw attention to places where the literature is ambiguous, illogical, or where there is a dearth of study.

For instance, the researcher found a vacuum in the literature addressing the efficacy of feedback on ESL writing in the study named “Exploring the Effects of Feedback on ESL Writing”. After conducting a comprehensive examination of the literature, the researcher found that there are divergent opinions on how feedback might help ESL writers. In order to close this gap in the literature, the researcher then suggested a study to look at the efficiency of various sorts of feedback on ESL writing.

The research “Teaching English Pronunciation to Non-Native Speakers” is another such. The usefulness of various methods for teaching English pronunciation to non-native speakers has not been well covered in the literature, according to the researcher. The researcher noticed a dearth of studies on the use of visual aids in teaching pronunciation after conducting a rigorous evaluation of the body of current literature. In order to close this gap in the literature, the researcher recommended a study to look at how well visual aids work for teaching pronunciation.

An essential part of a thesis in language education is identifying research gaps since it indicates the researcher’s capacity to examine the current literature critically and provide justification for the planned study. It contributes to filling up the gaps in the literature and advancing knowledge in the topic.

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE STUDY

A thesis in language teaching should include a part titled “Implications for the Study” that analyzes the possible effects and contributions of the research results on the discipline of language teaching. The researcher should analyze the study’s theoretical and practical implications for teaching languages in this part, including any possible applications to the classroom, public policy, or future research.

For instance, the implications of a research on the efficiency of technology in language training can include suggestions for incorporating technology into language instruction or the identification of possible obstacles to efficient technology integration in language classrooms. The section may also discuss the research’s larger theoretical implications, such as how the results advance our knowledge of the function of technology in language acquisition or how they contradict preexisting theoretical assumptions.

A research on the effects of teacher preparation on language learning outcomes is another example. The study’s suggestions for bettering teacher preparation programs or its identification of the best training modalities for certain settings or learner populations might be some of its ramifications. The results’ possible policy repercussions, such as the need for more funding for teacher education or the creation of national standards for language teacher preparation, may also be covered in this section.

The researcher should use pertinent references and in-text citations to support their interpretation of the study’s implications. For instance, the researcher in the technology study indicated above may consult the literature on the subject of how technology affects language learning or on the potential and difficulties of incorporating technology into language classes. In the teacher training study, the author may have consulted studies on efficient teacher education programs or the effects of teacher education on language learning outcomes.

Table 3. a summary of the chapter on literature

Section	Description
Theoretical Reviews	Provides a critical analysis of key theories or perspectives relevant to the research topic, highlighting any areas of agreement or disagreement in the literature.
Theoretical Framework	Outlines the theoretical framework that will guide the study, including the key concepts, assumptions, and propositions that underpin the research design.
Conceptual Framework	Describes the conceptual framework used to organize the study, including any models, frameworks, or typologies that structure the research.
Review of Related Literature	Provides a comprehensive and critical review of existing literature on the research topic, identifying key themes, debates, and gaps in the literature.
Identifying Research Gaps	Identifies the gaps or limitations in the existing literature that the study aims to address, and outlines how the research will contribute to filling these gaps.
Implications for the Study	Discusses the implications of the research for theory, practice, and policy in the field of language teaching, highlighting any potential practical or theoretical applications of the research findings.

CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY

Any thesis, even those in the area of teaching languages, must include a part on the research technique. This part provides an overview of the general methodology used to conduct the study and contains crucial information on the research setting, sampling techniques, design, procedures, instruments, validity, and reliability in addition to data collecting, data analysis, and a pilot study.

The research background section provides a detailed description of the study’s environment and participants, including their geographic location, study duration, and any pertinent demographic data. The study’s broad methodology, such as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methodologies, as well as the individual research questions or hypotheses being examined, are described in the research design section. The particular processes required to carry out the study, including any ethical issues or techniques for participant recruitment, are described in the research procedures section.

The section on research instruments addresses the particular methods or approaches, such surveys, interviews, or assessments, that are used to gather data. The general caliber and consistency of the study and its conclusions are discussed in the validity and reliability sections. The steps used to acquire the data, including their timing and methodology, are described in full in the section on data collecting. The precise statistical or qualitative techniques used to examine the data and make inferences are described in the section on data analysis. Finally, any preliminary or pre-testing carried out to improve the research methods before to starting the main investigation is included in the section on the pilot study.

To produce high-quality and useful research in the area of language instruction, a well-designed and well-executed research technique is essential.

RESEARCH CONTEXT

The research background section is essential for outlining the precise location, period, and study subjects. This section tries to provide the reader a clear idea of the demographic the study is intended to serve as well as the research setting. Language teachers or educators working in a variety of educational settings (such as schools, universities, language institutes, etc.) may be involved in language teaching research contexts that include language learners of varied proficiency levels, ages, and backgrounds.

Pham’s research from 2021 on the impact of lecturers’ model e-comments on graduate students’ peer e-comments and writing revision is one example. The study was conducted in the Graduate School of the Vietnam-based Ho Chi Minh City Open University (HCMC OU). 50 graduate students enrolled in a TESOL master’s degree made up the participants. To make the study background explicit, the researchers supplied information regarding the curriculum of the institute, the teaching style, and the language competency of the students.

SAMPLING METHODS AND PARTICIPANTS/SAMPLE

In order to make sure that the participants chosen for the study are representative of the population being investigated, sampling techniques are essential in language instruction research. Both probability sampling and non-probability sampling are offered as sampling techniques.

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen for the research when using probability sampling. Simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling are all included in this technique (Bryman, 2016). Simple random selection chooses volunteers from the population at random, while systematic sampling chooses people in accordance with a specified pattern. Cluster sampling chooses groups or clusters of participants from the population, whereas stratified sampling divides the population into subgroups and chooses participants from each segment.

On the other hand, non-probability sampling does not use a random selection of individuals and may provide a biased sample. This approach incorporates quota sampling, snowball sampling, convenience sampling, and purposive sampling (Bryman, 2016). While convenience sampling chooses participants depending on their availability, purposeful sampling chooses people based on predetermined criteria. As opposed to quota sampling, which chooses participants based on predetermined criteria like age or gender, snowball sampling chooses individuals based on recommendations from previous participants.

The population, study issue, and available resources all go into the decision of which sampling technique to use. Researchers must make sure that the sample is representative of the population being researched and that the sampling technique they use is acceptable for the study.

For instance, in one study, participants were chosen by stratified random selection from a population of EFL instructors. The sample was divided based on the educational attainment, gender, and experience of the instructors. The chosen sample was checked by the researchers to make sure it was both acceptable for their study issue and representative of the population.

Additionally, in language instruction research, the people or groups who are a part of the study are referred to as participants or samples. The choice of the sample is important since it has an impact on the validity and generalizability of the study’s findings. When planning the research, take into account the participant’s characteristics, including age, gender, linguistic ability, cultural background, and level of education.

The sample size is another crucial factor. A bigger sample size is often desirable in language education research to boost the study’s statistical power and representativeness. The sample size must be manageable and practicable in terms of recruitment.

For instance, Wang and Li (2021) examined this issue. In order to look into the prevalence of corrective feedback (CF) and learner uptake, two instructional environments were compared at the university level: English as a second language (ESL) in the US and English as a foreign language (EFL) in China. the distribution of CF emphasized similar aspects, but the linguistic focus was significantly different; and (3) the overall frequencies of uptake and repair were similar between the two settings, but the rates of uptake and repair following explicit correction were significantly lower in the EFL lessons than in the ESL lessons. These findings were obtained from the analysis of 36 hours of observation data. These results suggest that, despite certain similarities between teacher-student interactions in ESL and EFL contexts, the instructional environment must be taken into account when analyzing CF and learner absorption.

It is crucial to remember that the sample size and selection should make sense given the research topic and methods used in the study. To improve the generalizability of the study’s results, the sample should also be representative of the relevant population.

RESEARCH DESIGN

A study’s overall strategy or plan for addressing the research questions or hypotheses is referred to as the research design in language education. The kind of data gathered, the techniques utilized for data analysis, and the validity and reliability of the study’s conclusions are all influenced by the research design used in the study. A variety of research designs, such as experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, case study, ethnographic, and mixed-methods designs, may be employed in language teaching research.

In order to investigate the causal link between the independent and dependent variables, experimental designs are often utilized in language education research. For instance, Nguyen and Luu (2018) looked at the effects of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) on the writing abilities and motivation of EFL learners, which is thought to be a mediating component in the enhancement of writing abilities at Tien Giang University. With 40 first-year students split evenly into a control group (CG) and an experimental group (EG), the study used a quasi-experimental approach. The results of the pre-tests, post-tests, pre-questionnaires, and post-questionnaires show that TBLT improves the writing abilities of EFL students in all five areas: vocabulary, content, grammar, organization, and mechanics. The study also demonstrates that TBLT has a favorable effect on learner writing motivation and that learner writing motivation and writing performance are positively correlated.

In order to investigate the link between two or more variables, correlational designs are often utilized in language education research. One research, for instance, used a correlational approach to look at the connection between writing skill among EFL students and instructor feedback. In order to provide participants in language education research a thorough grasp of a specific issue, case study approaches are often utilized.

In order to investigate the cultural and social circumstances of language learning and teaching, ethnographic designs are often utilized in the field of language education. To evaluate the impact of a flipped classroom approach on EFL learners’ grammar performance in speaking and writing skills, Pham and Do (2021) used a mixed-methods methodology.

In general, the selection of a study design in studies on language education is influenced by the questions or hypotheses being investigated, as well as the accessibility of resources and participants. To guarantee the validity and trustworthiness of their results, researchers must carefully choose the best study strategy.

RESEARCH PROCEDURES

Research protocols describe the precise measures that were followed to carry out the research, such as participant recruiting techniques and ethical issues. Numerous research methods, including observation, survey, interview, focus group discussion, and experimental, are often utilized in the study of language instruction.

A study technique known as observation is routinely observing and documenting behavior or occurrences in a natural or controlled environment. This approach is often used in language education research to see how students behave in class, what they do, and how they use language (Richards & Schmidt, 2013).

In surveys, a sample of individuals are surveyed using a series of standardized questions in order to gather data. In order to gather information on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors connected to language learning and teaching, surveys are often employed in language education research (Brown & Coombe, 2015).

Research techniques called interviews include speaking with participants in-person or online to get information from them. In-depth information on participants’ experiences, perspectives, and attitudes regarding language learning and teaching is often gathered via interviews in language teaching research (Simpson, 2011).

A focus group discussion is a research technique that includes gathering a group of people to talk about a certain subject or problem. In order to understand more about participants’ attitudes, opinions, and experiences linked to language learning and teaching in a group environment, focus group talks are often utilized in language teaching research (Krueger, 2014).

A research method called experimentation includes changing an independent variable and seeing what happens to a dependent variable as a result. In order to evaluate the impact of instructional strategies or materials on language learning outcomes, experimentation is often utilized in language teaching research (Ellis & Shintani, 2013).

In brief, the selection of research methodologies in studies on language education relies on the questions or hypotheses being investigated as well as the unique environment of the study.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The tools or procedures used to gather data for a study are referred to as research instruments. Depending on the study topics or hypotheses being investigated, a variety of research tools may be employed in studies on language instruction. These may consist of tests, questionnaires, questionnaires, observations, interviews, and surveys.

Consider a research where information on the motivation and approach used by English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students was gathered through a questionnaire. The survey was divided into two sections: the first asked about the participants’ demographics and the second asked about their motivation and approach to problem-solving. Using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, the researchers reported the questionnaire’s reliability.

In order to ensure the validity and reliability of the data acquired in a study, it is essential that the right research instruments be chosen and used. To choose the best instrument(s) for their research questions or hypotheses, researchers must carefully weigh the advantages and drawbacks of various tools.

VALIDITY

Validity in language education research relates to how well a study captures the outcomes it set out to. The legitimacy and use of the study results depend on ensuring validity. Research on language instruction may benefit from numerous forms of validity, including content validity, construct validity, and criterion-related validity.

The degree to which a study tool, such as a test or questionnaire, appropriately covers every facet of the construct being examined is referred to as content validity. For instance, the test questions in a research that evaluates vocabulary knowledge should include a wide variety of vocabulary terms, not simply a few chosen ones.

The degree to which a research tool measures the underlying concept it is designed to assess is known as its construct validity. This entails looking at how the instrument relates to other conceptually connected measures of the construct being examined.

The degree to which a research instrument reliably predicts performance on an external criteria is known as criterion-related validity. For instance, criterion-related validity would include establishing if participants in the intervention performed better on a standardized language competence test than participants in the control group in a research looking at the efficacy of a language learning intervention.

Researchers may use a range of strategies, such as pilot testing the research instrument and carrying out statistical analysis to determine the link between the instrument and other variables, to guarantee validity in language teaching research.

RELIABILITY

The consistency and stability of the study findings across time, under various situations, and among various raters or evaluators are all examples of reliability in language education research (Bachman & Palmer, 2022). By doing this, it makes sure that the data are reliable, accurate, and devoid of arbitrary flaws or variances that can compromise the validity and generalizability of the study results. Reliability is a crucial factor in language assessment research that defines how consistent and repeatable the results of a test or assessment instrument are (Alderson, 2005).

Test-retest reliability, inter-rater reliability, internal consistency reliability, and parallel-forms reliability are a few techniques for measuring reliability in language instruction research (Bachman & Palmer, 2022). The level of consistency between the results of the same test performed to the same individuals at various intervals is known as test-retest reliability. The level of consistency in the evaluations or scores provided by several raters or evaluators for the same job or performance is known as inter-rater reliability. Internal consistency reliability describes how well a test or assessment instrument’s items or components are consistent and accurately measure the same concept. The degree of consistency between two comparable copies of the same test or assessment tool is referred to as parallel-forms reliability.

Researchers must use suitable techniques for measuring reliability and include the findings in their research reports in order to guarantee the validity of research instruments used in language education (Bachman & Palmer, 2022). The manner of administration, the caliber of the raters or evaluators, and the characteristics of the participants or samples are other aspects that must be taken into account if the findings are to be considered reliable.

DATA COLLECTION

Any research project, including those on language instruction, must include data collecting. In order to find out the answers to the research questions or test the research hypotheses, information or data must be gathered from a variety of sources, including surveys, interviews, observations, and evaluations.

Depending on the study design and the research issues under investigation, several data gathering techniques may be used in language instruction. For instance, Santos (2016) used observation to gather data for one of his studies. The results showed that peer observation, especially in language instruction, was a beneficial tool for ongoing professional growth.

To prevent bias or inaccuracies in the analysis, it is crucial to make sure that the data obtained are relevant, correct, and dependable. Researchers that study language instruction can also think about ethical issues throughout the data gathering process, such getting participants’ informed permission and ensuring anonymity.

Briefly said, collecting data is a crucial part of doing research on language instruction since it serves as the foundation for the analysis and interpretation of the results.

DATA ANALYSIS

Any research project, including studies on how to teach languages, must include data analysis. In order to respond to research questions or test hypotheses, it entails interpreting data that was gathered during the investigation. Depending on the study methodology, data collection, and research goals, data analysis may take many various shapes. In qualitative research, data analysis may entail coding and categorization to find patterns and themes, while statistical analysis is often employed to evaluate data in quantitative research.

There are several software tools available for data analysis in research on language training. For instance, in a study by Pham (2023), the authors utilized the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to examine the quantitative information they had gathered on the impacts of cooperative learning on vocabulary acquisition in EFL learners.

It is important to make sure that the data analysis techniques used in the study are suitable for the kind of data gathered as well as aligned with the research questions or hypotheses. Researchers must also make sure that the data analysis processes are open, trustworthy, and legitimate as well as that the findings’ interpretation is correct and pertinent to the study’s goals.

PILOT STUDY

A small-scale preparatory study known as a “pilot study” is carried out before the major study in order to evaluate and improve the research concept, processes, and equipment. An evaluation of the feasibility and suitability of the research design and methods for the research questions and goals is the goal of a pilot study in language education. It also tries to detect any possible concerns or problems that may emerge during the main study.

A small sample of participants may be employed in a pilot project to test the research tools and techniques, and the data gathered may be examined to find any problems or areas for improvement. The outcomes of the pilot study may then be utilized to improve the methods and design of the main study as well as to assure its validity and reliability.

In conclusion, a pilot study is an essential part of research technique in the teaching of languages. In addition to ensuring that the research design and techniques are realistic and acceptable for the research questions and goals, it may assist in identifying possible concerns or problems that may develop during the primary study.

Table 4 shows a technique summary.

Research Methodology Section	Description
Research Context	Describes the context and setting of the research, including the participants, location, and timeframe. The research context provides an overview of the research setting and provides essential information for the study’s generalizability.
Sampling Methods and Participants	Describes the sampling method used and the participants involved in the study. This section details the selection criteria for participants, the recruitment process, and any relevant demographic information. It is essential to ensure that the sample is representative of the population and that the study’s findings can be generalized. (Creswell & Creswell, 2017)
Research Design	Outlines the overall approach taken in the study, such as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods, and the specific research questions or hypotheses being tested. The research design is essential in guiding the study’s implementation and analysis and ensuring that the study’s objectives are met. (Johnson & Christensen, 2019)
Research Procedures	Details the specific steps taken in conducting the study, including any ethical considerations or participant recruitment methods. This section provides an overview of the procedures followed to carry out the research and how the data were collected (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
Research Instruments	Describes the tools or instruments used to collect data, such as surveys, interviews, or observations. This section discusses the development and validation of the instruments used and how they were administered. (Bachman & Palmer, 2022)
Validity	Assesses the accuracy of the research findings by ensuring that the study measures what it intended to measure. This section discusses the different types of validity, including content, construct, and criterion-related validity, and how they were addressed in the study. (Bachman & Palmer, 2022)
Reliability	Assesses the consistency and stability of the research findings by ensuring that the study’s results can be replicated. This section discusses the different types of reliability, including inter-rater, test-retest, and internal consistency, and how they were addressed in the study. (Bachman & Palmer, 2022)
Data Collection	Describes how the data were collected, including the procedures used to ensure the data’s quality and integrity. This section details the data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, or observations, and how they were administered (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
Data Analysis	Details the data analysis techniques used in the study, including statistical or qualitative analysis methods. This section discusses the procedures followed to analyze the data and how the results were interpreted. (Johnson & Christensen, 2019)
Pilot Study	Discusses the preliminary study conducted before the actual research to test the study’s feasibility and improve the research design. This section provides an overview of the pilot study’s results and how they informed the final research design (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).

CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS AND FINDINGS

Any study article, including those on the teaching of languages, must have a section outlining the findings and outcomes. In this part, the researcher summarizes the key findings while clearly outlining the data they have gathered and the study’s conclusions. The researcher must summarize the data that were gathered, explain the statistical techniques that were used to analyze the data, and provide the analysis’ findings in this part. To further highlight the results, the section should also contain tables, charts, and graphs.

The format of the results and conclusions presentation should be consistent with the study questions or hypotheses. Each research question or hypothesis should include a response from the researcher that outlines the results and how they relate to the research questions. The researcher should also provide an interpretation of the findings, outlining their implications and how they add to the body of information already known about language instruction.

The reader should have a clear comprehension of the data gathered and the study’s conclusions thanks to an orderly and well-written presentation of the results and findings section. Tables, charts, and graphs may assist in the presentation of the data and make the results easier for the reader to comprehend.

PARTICIPANT INFORMATION

In language teaching research, describing participant information entails giving a thorough description of the participants, including demographic data, language skill level, and any pertinent background information. This data is essential for verifying that the study’s findings are reliable and can be applied to a larger population. For instance, in one research, the participant information section included the participants’ ages, genders, educational backgrounds, and levels of language ability.

To guarantee that the sample is representative of the population being investigated, it is also crucial to disclose the recruitment process for participants, including any incentives or pay given. The participant information section can also restate the information that is often given in the study methods section.

The outcomes of language education studies may also be interpreted differently if participants come from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. To account for any possible confounding factors, it is crucial to explain the cultural and linguistic variety of the participants.

In order for language instruction study findings to be reliable and applicable to a larger population, the participant information section is essential.

RESPONSES TO EACH RESEARCH QUESTION

Researchers often use a systematic method for presenting the findings that is adapted to the particular research issue being addressed. To summarize the gathered data, the findings section could contain descriptive statistics like means and standard deviations. The significance of differences or correlations between variables may also be assessed using inferential statistics, such as t-tests, ANOVAs, or regression analyses.

To provide a complete comprehension of the data, it is crucial to give findings with succinct, unambiguous explanations of statistical analyses. To help in the understanding of the data, researchers may provide the findings in the form of tables, graphs, or figures. Visual aids may make the data easier to interpret for readers and can emphasize important discoveries.

Additionally, it is essential to directly address the study question or hypothesis while presenting the data. Any major findings should be presented in a clear and succinct way, and results should be clearly related to the study topic. Readers can better appreciate the relevance of the findings in connection to the research question or hypothesis if the results are presented in a clear and orderly manner.

For instance, Mao and Lee’s (2020) research. Examining the present state of research on the breadth of written corrective feedback (WCF), identifying open questions, and making suggestions for more study are the goals of this study. The efficacy of comprehensive WCF, the effectiveness of focused WCF, the relative effectiveness of focused and comprehensive WCF, and student and instructor views and attitudes towards WCF were the four characteristics that the researchers concentrated on when analyzing 59 papers. The comparison of comprehensive and targeted WCF, combining both forms of feedback, and the role of individual and environmental variables in feedback scope are some of the under-explored themes the research uncovered. Additionally, the researchers identified methodological flaws in previous studies, such as an imbalance in research methodology and research methods. The researchers offered suggestions for more study on the WCF feedback scope that uses not only quantitative but also qualitative and mixed-methods techniques in light of their results. This study may enhance earlier summaries that mostly emphasized quantitative studies and add to the body of WCF literature.

Addressing the key themes or patterns that appeared in the data is crucial when delivering answers to research questions. This might relate to the efficiency of a certain teaching strategy, the influence of technology on language acquisition, or the connection between instructor attitudes and student motivation in language education research.

It is crucial to contextualize the results and go through how they relate to actual language instruction. This may include comparing the results to earlier studies in the subject, talking about the study’s possible limitations, and outlining suggested directions for further investigation.

 PRESENTING THE FINDINGS

The researcher provides and analyzes the data gathered to address the research questions or test the hypotheses in the findings and results portion of a thesis in language instruction. Tables, graphs, and charts should be used to support the data in a clear and succinct presentation of the results. Discussing the significance and implications of the findings while connecting them to the literature review is the process of interpreting the results.

The researcher should take into account the study’s context and constraints, the reliability and validity of the data, and the research questions or hypotheses being investigated while interpreting the findings. The results should be compared to earlier studies in the area, and any parallels or discrepancies should be discussed.

A research by Pham et al. (2020) investigating the effect of corrective feedback on second-language writing is one example. The results were presented using a mix of descriptive and inferential statistics, and the findings were interpreted in light of other studies on corrective feedback. They also outlined potential topics for further study and spoke about how the results may affect language instructors.

The results should be well presented and supported by the data gathered, and they should add to the general knowledge of the study issue in the area of language instruction.

Table 5 shows a summary of the findings.

Research Results	Description
Participant information	This section presents a summary of the participants’ characteristics, including their demographic information.
Presenting the results	This section presents the results under each research question, using tables, graphs, and descriptive statistics.
Interpret the results	This section interprets the results and provides explanations for the findings.
Presenting the findings	Provides a summary of the research findings and discusses their implications

CHAPTER 5 – DISCUSSION

The Discussion section is an essential component of a thesis in language education since it offers the chance to talk about the results’ relevance and their implications for classroom instruction. The researcher might examine the study hypotheses, discuss the outcomes, and provide an interpretation of the findings in this part.

The main conclusions of the research are abridged in the discussion section’s opening paragraph. Finding any patterns or trends in the data as well as any unanticipated or unexpected findings are all part of this process. It is crucial to examine any research limitations and how they could have influenced the outcomes.

The comparison of the results with earlier studies in the subject is a crucial component of the Discussion section. This enables the researcher to assess if the results support or contradict the body of current literature and whether there are any discrepancies that need to be explained in order to further knowledge of the study issue.

The Discussion section may also examine potential causes for any discrepancies between the current study and earlier studies. It is also crucial to discuss the study’s shortcomings and provide suggestions for more research.

The researcher should next make connections between the findings and the study questions and hypotheses. This entails debating whether the findings confirm or disprove the research questions and hypotheses as well as if they provide any fresh information about the subject of study. Comparing the findings of the present study with those of earlier studies on the same or related subjects may also be helpful.

The researcher should analyze the research hypotheses and explain whether or not they were supported after linking the findings to the research questions and hypotheses. In the event that the hypotheses were not confirmed, the researcher should explore potential causes and provide recommendations for future study.

Additionally, the researcher might link the results to the study’s theoretical framework in the Discussion section. This makes it possible for the researcher to investigate how the results advance our comprehension of the theoretical ideas.

The researcher should next provide an explanation of the results. Based on the study’s findings, the researcher may provide suggestions for lecturers or for particular establishments. This entails talking about the findings’ wider ramifications and how they add to the field’s body of knowledge. Discussing any practical implications of the results for language teaching techniques may also be part of it.

The reader’s comprehension of the relevance of the study’s results and their implications for language teaching theory and practice is greatly aided by the discussion portion of a thesis in language teaching. Additionally, it is crucial for summarizing research results and outlining their implications for the teaching of languages.

CHAPTER 6 – CONCLUSION

A thesis’ conclusion section should condense the study’s key findings and field implications (Swales & Feak, 2012). The primary conclusions and their consequences should be summarized, the study questions and hypotheses should be restated, and possible future research avenues should be suggested (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). The study’s shortcomings should be discussed in the conclusion, along with suggestions on how to resolve them in future investigations.

The study’s importance for the area of language teaching and learning should also be highlighted in the conclusion (Swales & Feak, 2012). This might include going through how the study’s findings complement and add to already-existing research as well as going over any possible real-world implications for language teaching and learning.

REFERENCES

Please refer to the link below for APA styles

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/paper-format/

APPENDICES

A thesis’ appendices part offers further data that backs up the study but is not essential to comprehend the main text. Raw data, interview transcripts, survey questions, and other supplementary materials that are too long to be included in the main text are often provided. For readers’ convenience, the Appendices section should be adequately named and arranged (Swales & Feak, 2012).

It is important to remember that material that belonged in the main text, such as significant data or analysis, should not be put in the appendices section. Use the Appendices section sparingly; it is there to support the main content.

REFERENCE

Alderson, J. C. (2005). Diagnosing foreign language proficiency: The interface between learning and assessment. A&C Black.

Bachman, L., & Palmer, A. (2022). Language assessment in practice: Developing language assessments and justifying their use in the real world. Oxford University Press.

Brown, J. D., & Coombe, C. (Eds.). (2015). The Cambridge guide to research in language teaching and learning intrinsic eBook. Cambridge University Press.

Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford university press.

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications.

Ellis, R., & Shintani, N. (2013). Exploring language pedagogy through second language acquisition research. Routledge.

Johnson, R. B., & Christensen, L. (2019). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches. Sage publications.

Krueger, R. A. (2014). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Sage publications.

Leedy, P. D., Ormrod, J. E., & Johnson, L. R. (2019). Practical research: Planning and design (pp. 228-242). Pearson.

Liu, Q., & Brown, D. (2015). Methodological synthesis of research on the effectiveness of corrective feedback in L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 30, 66-81.

Mao, Z., & Lee, I. (2020). Feedback scope in written corrective feedback: Analysis of empirical research in L2 contexts. Assessing writing, 45, 100469.

Nguyen, T. M. H., & Luu, T. T. (2018). The effect of task-based language teaching on EFL learners’ writing performance at Tien Giang University. Can Tho University Journal of Science, 54(5), 91-97. https://doi.org/10.22144/ctu.jen.2018.031

Pham, V. P. H. (2023). The Impacts of Collaborative Writing on Individual Writing Skills. Journal of Psycholinguist Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-023-09939-2

Pham, V. P. H., Luong, T. K. P., Tran, T. T. O., Nguyen, Q, G. ( 2020). Should Peer E-Comments Replace Traditional Peer Comments? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INSTRUCTION, 13(1), PP. 295-314. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.13120a

Pham, V. P. H., & Do, T. H, (2021). The Impacts of Task-based Instruction on Students’ Grammatical Performances in Speaking and Writing Skills: A quasi-experimental study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INSTRUCTION, 14(2), PP. 969-986. DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2021.14255a

Pham, Vu Phi Ho (2021). The Effects of Lecturer’s Model e-comments on Graduate Students’ Peer e-comments and Writing Revision. COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING, 34(3), PP. 324-357. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1609521

Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. W. (2013). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. Routledge.

Santos, L. (2016). Foreign Language Teachers’ Professional Development through Peer Observation Programme. English Language Teaching, 9(10), 1-39.

Simpson, J. (Ed.). (2011). The Routledge handbook of applied linguistics. Taylor & Francis.

Setyowati, L., & Sukmawan, S. (2019). Authentic Materials for Teaching Writing: A Critical Look. International Journal of Language Education, 3(2), 68-77.

Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (2012). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. University of Michigan Press.

Wang, W., & Li, S. (2021). Corrective feedback and learner uptake in American ESL and Chinese EFL classrooms: A comparative study. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 34(1), 35-50.

The conventional structure of an M.A. or Ph.D. thesis in language education is divided into many components. A short summary of the research topic, research questions, aims, and importance of the study are given in the Introduction, the first part. The literature review part offers a theoretical foundation for the study as well as a…