Chapter 8 – Motivation in SLA

Posted On April 26, 2023

Chapter 8 covers various aspects of motivation in language learning. The chapter begins by discussing the different types of motivation, including intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and how they affect language learning. Intrinsic motivation is defined as the desire to engage in an activity for its own sake, while extrinsic motivation is driven by external factors such as rewards or punishment. The concept of integrativeness as an antecedent of motivation is also introduced, which refers to the desire to learn a language in order to integrate into the culture of the target language. The authors argue that integrative motivation can significantly impact language learning success.

The chapter goes on to discuss the role of orientation and attitudes in language learning motivation, including the concept of language ego and how it can affect language learners’ motivation. The authors also examine self-determination theory, which posits that the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness drives intrinsic motivation. Language learning motivation is then explored in more detail, including the different stages of the motivation process, such as the initial spark of interest and the sustained effort required to achieve language proficiency. The authors also discuss the concept of motivation as a dynamic process that can change over time.

The chapter also delves into the affective factors and individual differences that can affect language learning. These factors include anxiety, personality traits, and learning styles. Foreign language anxiety is a significant concern among language learners, and the authors discuss the causes and consequences of this phenomenon. Personality traits, such as extraversion and openness, have also been found to be related to language learning success. Different learning styles, such as visual and auditory, may also affect how learners approach language learning. The authors explore the implications of these individual differences for language teaching and learning.

Finally, the chapter examines the motivation and learning strategies of polyglots, individuals who can speak multiple languages proficiently. The authors argue that studying the experiences and strategies of polyglots can provide valuable insights into language learning and motivation, as they tend to be highly self-motivated and use a variety of learning strategies to enhance their language acquisition.

Questions for discussion

What motivates you to learn a new language, and how does that motivation affect your learning outcomes?
How important do you think intrinsic motivation is in language learning compared to extrinsic motivation?
What role do you think cultural integration plays in language learning motivation?
Have you ever had a negative experience that impacted your motivation to learn a language? How did you overcome it?
Are you familiar with any polyglots, and if so, what strategies do they use to maintain their motivation and continue learning multiple languages?

Case study 8

Emma is a 16-year-old student from Brazil who is learning English as a second language. She has been studying English in school for three years and has recently started taking private lessons with a tutor. Emma is a motivated learner who is eager to improve her English skills.

Emma’s tutor has noticed that Emma is particularly interested in pop culture and music. Emma enjoys listening to English songs and watching American TV shows. She often asks her tutor to explain the lyrics of her favorite songs and discuss the plots of her favorite shows. Emma’s tutor sees this as an opportunity to encourage Emma’s intrinsic motivation to learn English.

On the other hand, Emma’s parents are putting pressure on her to improve her English grades in school. They have told her that they will pay for her to study abroad in the United States if she gets good grades in English. Emma is aware of the extrinsic motivation provided by her parents, but she also feels that this pressure is making her stressed and anxious about her English studies.

Work with a group of three or four students, and discuss the ways to appeal to Emma’s intrinsic motivation to learn English.

Introduction

The common meaning of motivation is the willingness to start and continue L2 learning, and we usually think of it as a matter of degree, as we often notice that some learners have a lot of motivation and others have little or none. In the late 1950s, a model of L2 learning motivation was developed by Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert, two Canadian researchers, as part of a broader model of foreign language learning called the socio-educational model (Gardner and Lambert, 1972; Gardner, 1985). Gardner and his colleagues refined their definition of motivation through large-scale surveys mostly conducted in Canada for over forty years. However, in the 1990s, the model was challenged for being too narrow and not keeping up with wider developments in psychology (e.g. Crookes and Schmidt, 1991; Dörnyei, 1994; Oxford and Shearin, 1994).

Motivation is one of the most important factors for learning a second language proficiently. Motivation is a kind of desire for learning. It is very difficult to teach a second language in a learning environment if the learner does not have a desire to learn a language (Nurhidayah, 2015). Motivation is used as a concept for explaining the success or failure of a language learner (Pazyura, 2020).

There are two basic types of motivation in second language acquisition: integrative motivation and instrumental motivation. Integrative motivation refers to the learner’s interest in the culture and people of the target language, and the desire to interact with them. Instrumental motivation refers to the learner’s practical goals and benefits of learning the language, such as getting a better job or passing an exam (Carrió-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014).

According to Gardner (1982), motivation is composed of three elements: effort (the time spent studying and the drive of the learner), desire (the yearning to become proficient in the language) and affect (the emotional reactions of the learner towards studying) (Carrió-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014). Various factors can influence these elements, such as the learner’s beliefs, attitudes, personality, learning style, self-efficacy, anxiety, etc.

Motivation plays a crucial role in second language acquisition because it can affect the learner’s attention, engagement, persistence, and achievement. Motivated learners are more likely to pay attention to the input, participate in communicative activities, seek feedback, use strategies, overcome difficulties, and achieve their goals (Dörnyei, 2001). On the contrary, unmotivated learners are more likely to lose interest, avoid challenges, give up easily, and perform poorly (Dörnyei, 2001).

Therefore, teachers and learners need to understand the role of motivation in second language acquisition and to foster it in various ways. Some possible ways are:

Creating a supportive and positive learning environment
Providing meaningful and authentic tasks and materials
Giving clear and realistic goals and expectations
Offering choices and autonomy to learners
Providing feedback and praise
Encouraging collaboration and interaction
Raising awareness of the benefits and values of learning the language
Enhancing learners’ self-confidence and self-esteem

By doing so, teachers and learners can enhance motivation in second language acquisition and improve learning outcomes.

Types of Motivation

Motivation is usually understood to refer to the desire to initiate and sustain second language learning, and it is a key factor for explaining the success or failure of a language learner (Pazyura, 2020). Motivation can be classified into two basic types: integrative and instrumental (Norris, 2003).

Integrative or Intrinsic motivation

Integrative motivation or Intrinsic motivation refers to the learner’s interest in the culture and people of the target language and the desire to interact with them. Integrative motivation is often associated with positive attitudes, affective involvement, and long-term commitment to learning the language (Carrió-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014). Integrative motivation is more common in foreign language learning contexts, where the learner has more opportunities and needs to communicate with native speakers of the target language (Norris, 2003).

Integrative motivation/Intrinsic motivation is a type of motivation that is especially relevant for foreign language learning. It involves the learner’s interest in the culture and people of the target language, and the desire to interact with them (Carrió-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014). Integrative motivation is often linked to positive attitudes, emotional involvement, and long-term commitment to learning the language (Norris, 2003).

For example, an integratively motivated learner may want to learn a foreign language because they have friends, relatives, or romantic partners who speak that language and want to communicate with them better. They may also want to learn more about the customs, values, and traditions of the target language community, and to identify with them. They may enjoy watching movies, listening to music, or reading books in the foreign language, and appreciate its beauty and diversity. They may have a personal affinity or curiosity for the people who speak that language (Norris, 2003).

Integrative motivation is more common in foreign language learning contexts, where the learner has more opportunities and needs to communicate with native speakers of the target language (Norris, 2003). For instance, a learner who lives in a country where the foreign language is spoken may have more integrative motivation than a learner who lives in a country where the foreign language is rarely used. Integrative motivation can also vary depending on the social and political relations between the learner’s first and target language groups. For example, a learner who belongs to a minority or oppressed group may have less integrative motivation to learn the dominant or official language than a learner who belongs to a majority or privileged group (Schumann, 1978).

Integrative motivation has been found to be a strong predictor of successful foreign language learning in many studies (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Integratively motivated learners tend to have higher proficiency, achievement, and retention levels than instrumentally motivated learners (Carrió-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014). However, some researchers have argued that integrative motivation is not a stable or universal construct, but rather depends on various factors such as the learner’s personality, goals, beliefs, context, and stage of learning (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Therefore, it is important for teachers and learners to understand the different forms and sources of integrative motivation in foreign language learning and how they can enhance it.

Intrinsic motivation is a type of motivation that is relevant for second language acquisition. It refers to the enjoyment or satisfaction derived from learning itself, regardless of external rewards or pressures (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Intrinsic motivation is based on the learner’s intrinsic interest, curiosity, or challenge in learning (Wu et al., 2022).

For example, a learner who is intrinsically motivated may want to learn a second language because they find it fun, interesting, or stimulating. They may enjoy discovering new words, expressions, or grammatical structures in the second language. They may also enjoy solving problems, overcoming difficulties, or achieving goals in the second language. They may have a passion or hobby involving the second language, such as reading novels, playing games, or watching movies. They may learn the second language for its own sake, rather than for external reasons such as grades, tests, or careers (Wu et al., 2022).

Intrinsic motivation is considered to be a powerful and enduring source of motivation for second language acquisition (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Intrinsically motivated learners tend to have higher engagement, persistence, and achievement levels than extrinsically motivated learners (Nurhidayah, 2015). However, intrinsic motivation is not easy to foster or maintain in second language learning contexts, especially when the learner faces boring tasks, difficult materials, or negative feedback (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Therefore, it is important for teachers and learners to understand the different forms and sources of intrinsic motivation in second language learning and how they can enhance it.

Legault (2016) explores the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and their implications for human behavior. The author defines intrinsic motivation as the engagement in behavior that is inherently satisfying or enjoyable and extrinsic motivation as the performance of behavior that is contingent on external outcomes. The author reviews the empirical evidence and theoretical perspectives on how intrinsic and extrinsic motivation interact and influence various domains of human functioning, such as learning, creativity, well-being, and morality. The author also discusses the factors that can enhance or undermine intrinsic motivation, such as autonomy, competence, relatedness, interest, feedback, and rewards. The author concludes by highlighting the importance of understanding and fostering intrinsic motivation for optimal human development.

Instrumental or extrinsic motivation

Instrumental or extrinsic motivation relates to the learner’s practical goals and benefits of learning the language, such as getting a better job, passing an exam, or traveling abroad (Carrió-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014). Instrumental motivation is often influenced by external rewards, pressures, or obligations, and it may not involve emotional attachment or identification with the target language or culture (Carrió-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014). Instrumental motivation is more typical of second language learning contexts, where the learner has little or no social integration into a community using the target language, or does not desire it (Norris, 2003).

For example, an instrumentally motivated learner may want to learn a second language because of a practical reason, such as getting a salary bonus, getting into college, or fulfilling a requirement. They may also want to learn a second language because of a specific need, such as communicating with customers, colleagues, or clients in their profession. They may not have much interest in the culture or people of the target language and may only learn the language to the extent that it serves their purpose. They may learn the language for its instrumental value rather than for its own sake (Norris, 2003).

Instrumental or extrinsic motivation has been found to be a common and effective source of motivation for second language learning in many contexts (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Instrumentally motivated learners tend to have clear and realistic goals, expectations, and feedback for their learning (Nurhidayah, 2015). However, instrumental motivation may not be sufficient or lasting for second language learning, especially when the learner faces competing demands, distractions, or difficulties (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Therefore, it is important for teachers and learners to understand the different forms and sources of instrumental motivation in second language learning and how they can enhance it.

Extrinsic and task motivation are two types of motivation relevant to second language learning. Extrinsic motivation refers to the influence of external factors, such as rewards or punishments on the learner’s behavior (Daskalovska et al., 2012). Task motivation refers to the interest or challenge posed by a specific learning activity (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011).

For example, an extrinsically motivated learner may want to learn a second language because of positive or negative consequences such as getting a prize, avoiding a penalty, or pleasing someone else. They may not have much intrinsic interest or enjoyment in the learning process and may only learn the language to the extent that it serves their external purpose. They may learn the language for its extrinsic value rather than for its own sake (Daskalovska et al., 2012).

A task-motivated learner may want to learn a second language because of a specific learning activity that they find engaging, stimulating, or meaningful. They may have a high level of intrinsic interest or satisfaction in the learning process and may learn the language for its own sake rather than for an external purpose. They may learn the language for its intrinsic value rather than for its extrinsic value (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011).

Extrinsic motivation and task motivation have different effects on second language learning outcomes. Extrinsic motivation can be a powerful and effective source of motivation for second language learning in some contexts, especially when the learner has clear and realistic goals, expectations, and feedback (Nurhidayah, 2015). However, extrinsic motivation can also have negative effects on second language learning, such as reducing intrinsic motivation, undermining autonomy, or creating anxiety (Daskalovska et al., 2012). Therefore, it is important for teachers and learners to understand the different forms and sources of extrinsic motivation in second language learning and how they can balance it with intrinsic motivation.

Task motivation can be a strong and enduring source of motivation for second language learning in many contexts, especially when the learner has a positive task orientation, ego-involvement, curiosity, and self-confidence (Ur, 1996). However, task motivation can also vary depending on various factors such as the learner’s personality, goals, beliefs, context, and stage of learning (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Therefore, it is important for teachers and learners to understand the different forms and sources of task motivation in second language learning and how they can enhance it.

Gardner and MacIntyre (1991) investigates the effects of integrative motivation and instrumental motivation on the learning of French/English vocabulary. The authors define integrative motivation as the learner’s interest in the culture and people of the target language, and instrumental motivation as the learner’s practical goals and benefits of learning the language. The authors conduct an experiment with 60 undergraduate students from a Canadian university, who were randomly assigned to one of four groups: high integrative motivation, low integrative motivation, instrumental motivation, or control. The participants were asked to learn 20 French/English word pairs using a computer program that provided feedback and reinforcement. The participants were also asked to complete a questionnaire measuring their attitudes and motivation towards learning French. The results showed that both integrative motivation and instrumental motivation facilitated learning, as measured by recall and recognition tests. The results also showed that instrumentally motivated students studied longer than non-instrumentally motivated students when there was an opportunity to profit from learning, but this distinction disappeared when the incentive was removed. The authors conclude that both integrative motivation and instrumental motivation are important for second language learning, and that computer administration of the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery is a feasible and reliable method.

Integrativeness as an Antecedent of Motivation

Integrativeness is one of the antecedents of motivation in second language learning. It refers to the learner’s interest in the culture and people of the target language, and the desire to interact with them (Carson & Longhini, 2002). Integrativeness is often associated with positive attitudes, affective involvement, and long-term commitment to learning the language (Carrió-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014). Integrativeness is more common in foreign language learning contexts, where the learner has more opportunities and needs to communicate with native speakers of the target language (Norris, 2003).

For example, a learner with high integrativeness may want to learn a second language because they want to get to know those who speak that language. They may also want to learn more about the customs, values, and traditions of the target language community, and to identify with them. They may enjoy watching movies, listening to music, or reading books in the second language, and appreciate its beauty and diversity. They may have a personal affinity or curiosity for the people who speak that language (Norris, 2003).

Integrativeness is considered to be a strong predictor of successful second language learning in many studies (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Integratively motivated learners tend to have higher proficiency, achievement, and retention levels than instrumentally motivated learners (Carrió-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014). However, integrativeness is not a stable or universal construct, but rather depends on various factors such as the learner’s personality, goals, beliefs, context, and stage of learning (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Therefore, it is important for teachers and learners to understand the different forms and sources of integrativeness in second language learning and how they can enhance it.

Early motivation research aimed to measure and predict an individual’s motivation for learning a second language (L2) and how it affects their L2 achievement level. However, another important goal was to explain what variables influence the increase or decrease of motivational quantity. These variables are called antecedents or ‘motivational substrates’ that shape the structure of motivation (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011).

One of the most central antecedents of motivation in L2 learning is integrativeness. Integrativeness is an attitude that reflects the learner’s interest in the culture and people of the target language, and the desire to interact with them (Gardner, 2001). Integrativeness is often associated with positive attitudes, affective involvement, and long-term commitment to learning the language (Carrió-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014). Integrativeness is more common in foreign language learning contexts, where the learner has more opportunities and needs to communicate with native speakers of the target language (Norris, 2003).

For example, a learner with high integrativeness may want to learn a second language to get closer to the other language community. They may also want to learn more about the customs, values, and traditions of the target language community, and to identify with them. They may enjoy watching movies, listening to music, or reading books in the second language, and appreciate its beauty and diversity. They may have a personal affinity or curiosity for the people who speak that language (Norris, 2003).

Integrativeness has been found to be a strong predictor of successful L2 learning in many studies (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). Integratively motivated learners tend to have higher proficiency, achievement, and retention levels than instrumentally motivated learners (Carrió-Pastor & Mestre Mestre, 2014). However, integrativeness has also been criticized for being too narrow and unresponsive to wider developments in psychology and society (e.g. Crookes & Schmidt, 1991; Dörnyei, 1994; Oxford & Shearin, 1994). Therefore, some researchers have proposed other antecedents of motivation that are relevant for L2 learning, such as intrinsic motivation (the enjoyment or satisfaction derived from learning itself), extrinsic motivation (the influence of external factors such as rewards or punishments), or task motivation (the interest or challenge posed by a specific learning activity) (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011).

The article by Levesque-Bristol et al. (2020) evaluates the integrative model for learning and motivation (IMLM) in the college classroom. The IMLM is based on self-determination theory and examines how the classroom climate, basic psychological needs satisfaction, and self-regulated motivation affect perceived knowledge transferability. The authors conducted a cross-sectional survey with 4385 students from various disciplines at a large university in the U.S. Midwest. They used factor analysis and structural equation modeling to test the fit of the data to the model. The results showed that the data fit the model well and that developing student-centered learning environments is important for enhancing motivation and perceptions of knowledge transferability through the satisfaction of students’ need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Orientation and Attitudes

Two important factors influencing second language acquisition (SLA) are orientation and attitudes. Orientation refers to the learner’s overall goal or reason for learning a second language. There are two main types of orientation: integrative and instrumental. Integrative orientation means that the learner wants to learn the language in order to integrate into the target language community, to communicate with native speakers, or to appreciate their culture. Instrumental orientation means that the learner wants to learn the language for practical purposes, such as getting a better job, passing an exam, or traveling abroad. According to Gardner and Lambert (1972), who first proposed this distinction, integrative orientation is more conducive to SLA than instrumental orientation because it involves more positive attitudes and motivation towards the language and its speakers.

Attitudes are the learner’s feelings or opinions about the language, its speakers, its culture, and oneself as a learner. Attitudes can be positive or negative, and they can affect the learner’s motivation, effort, and achievement in SLA. Positive attitudes can enhance the learner’s interest, confidence, and willingness to communicate in the second language. Negative attitudes can hinder the learner’s progress, cause anxiety, and reduce the learner’s opportunities for exposure and practice. Various factors can influence attitudes, such as the learner’s personality, cognitive style, age, aptitude, social context, and previous experiences with the language.

Many studies have investigated the role of orientation and attitudes in SLA. For example, Carrió-Pastor and Mestre Mestre (2014) examined how integrative and instrumental orientation affected the learners’ self-efficacy beliefs and performance in an online course that used a virtual world as a learning environment. They found that integrative orientation was more prevalent among the learners who participated in collaborative activities and showed higher levels of self-efficacy and achievement than those who had an instrumental orientation. Another example is Khasinah (2014), who explored how motivation, attitude, age, intelligence, aptitude, cognitive style, and personality influenced SLA among Indonesian learners of English. She found that motivation and attitude were among the most significant factors that affected the learners’ success in SLA.

Orientation and attitudes are crucial factors that shape the learner’s behavior and outcome in SLA. They can determine how much effort, desire, and affect the learner invests in learning a second language. They can also reflect how the learner perceives oneself and others in relation to the language. Therefore, teachers and researchers need to understand and foster positive orientation and attitudes among second language learners.

Orientation refers to reasons for learning the L2, because they contribute to setting goals that will propel and sustain motivation of varying intensities and qualities. Of course, reasons are not antithetical or mutually exclusive; therefore, a given individual may exhibit several orientations at once. There are five orientations for learning a language that L2 learners most commonly report across contexts:

Instrumental orientation: This orientation is based on pragmatic and utilitarian reasons for learning the L2, such as getting a better job, pursuing a higher level of education, or fulfilling a requirement. Learners with this orientation are motivated by external rewards or pressures and may view the L2 as a tool or a means to an end. For example, a student who learns English to pass an exam or to get into a university has an instrumental orientation (Noels et al., 2020).
Knowledge orientation: This orientation is based on the desire to learn the L2 for personal growth, intellectual curiosity, or enlightened understanding of one’s own identity, language, or culture. Learners with this orientation are motivated by intrinsic interest or satisfaction, and they may view the L2 as a source of knowledge or a way to expand their horizons. For example, a student who learns French to learn more about French literature or history has a knowledge orientation (Noels et al., 2020).
Travel orientation: This orientation is based on the wish to learn the L2 to facilitate travel to other countries or parts of a country where the L2 is spoken. Learners with this orientation are motivated by the opportunity to explore new places, cultures, and people, and they may view the L2 as a passport or a bridge to other worlds. For example, a student who learns Spanish to travel to Latin America has a travel orientation (Noels et al., 2020).
Friendship orientation: This orientation aims to learn the L2 to foster general friendship with the target language group members, regardless of their cultural background or identity. Learners with this orientation are motivated by the need for social affiliation, belonging, or acceptance, and they may view the L2 as a medium or a bond for interpersonal communication. For example, a student who learns Japanese to make friends with Japanese speakers has a friendship orientation (Noels et al., 2020).
Integrative orientation: This orientation is based on the aspiration to learn the L2 to identify with the target language group and culture, and to become more like its members. Learners with this orientation are motivated by the value they place on the L2 community and its norms, and they may view the L2 as an expression or an extension of their identity. For example, a student who learns Arabic to integrate into an Arabic-speaking society has an integrative orientation (Gardner & Lambert, 1972).

These orientations reflect different types of goals that learners have for learning the L2, and they can influence their motivation, engagement, and achievement in various ways. According to self-determination theory (SDT), orientations that are more autonomous (i.e., based on intrinsic interest, personal values, or internalized norms) tend to enhance motivation and learning outcomes more than orientations that are more controlled (i.e., based on external rewards, pressures, or contingencies) (Ryan & Deci, 2017). However, orientations can also interact with other factors, such as learners’ beliefs about their ability (i.e., mindsets), their perceived competence and autonomy in learning the L2 (i.e., self-efficacy), and their social context and relationships (i.e., support or hindrance from significant others) (Lou & Noels, 2017; Noels et al., 2020). Therefore, teachers and researchers need to understand learners’ orientations and how they affect their motivation and learning process.

Getie, A.S. (2020) investigated the factors that affect the attitudes of grade 10 students towards learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in Debremarkos Comprehensive Secondary School in Ethiopia. The researcher randomly selected 103 students (10% of the total population) as the sample for the study. The data collection methods were a questionnaire, a focus group discussion, and an interview. The data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. The results of the study showed that the students had positive attitudes towards learning EFL, and that their attitudes were influenced by social factors (e.g., English native speakers, peer groups, and parents) and educational context factors (e.g., English teachers, learning situations, and textbooks). The social factors had a positive impact on the students’ attitudes, while the educational context factors had a negative impact, except for the textbook factor, which had a positive impact. The researcher also found that there were no significant differences in the students’ attitudes based on their gender or academic achievement. The study concluded that attitude is an integral part of EFL learning and that it should be considered by teachers and educators when developing strategies for EFL instruction and training. The study also suggested that the physical learning environment should be improved, and that the government should work with the school principals, teachers, and societies to achieve this goal.

Clément and Kruidenier (1983) conducted a significant study that identified more reasons for learning the L2 that affect motivation besides the five mentioned above. They also demonstrated that orientations for L2 learning depend on the context and are influenced by factors such as ‘who is the learner, what is the target language, and what is the learning environment’. Clément and Kruidenier aimed to examine how different orientations to second language acquisition (SLA) emerged among grade 11 students in Canada, and how they were influenced by their ethnicity (French or English), milieu (unicultural or multicultural), and target language (French, English, or Spanish). The authors defined orientations as learners’ reasons or goals for learning a second language (L2). They distinguished between six types of orientations: instrumental, integrative, friendship, travel, knowledge, and ethnic identification. The authors used a questionnaire to measure the orientations of 871 students from eight groups that resulted from the permutations of the three factors. They also conducted a focus group discussion and an interview with a subsample of students and teachers. They analyzed the data using factor analysis and cluster analysis.

The results showed that four orientations (instrumental, friendship, travel, and knowledge) were common to all groups, while two orientations (integrative and ethnic identification) were specific to certain combinations of ethnicity and target language. The results also showed that the milieu significantly affected the emergence of orientations, with multicultural settings fostering more integrative and ethnic identification orientations than unicultural settings. The authors concluded that orientations are not fixed or mutually exclusive categories, but rather dynamic and context-dependent constructs that reflect learners’ goals and attitudes towards SLA. They suggested that future studies should consider the influence of the learning context on orientations and their implications for SLA outcomes.

The motivation to learn an L2 is also affected by people’s feelings towards the L2 and its users. These feelings are shaped by the shared values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours that are valued and shown by the people in the groups that the learner belongs to, such as the classroom, the family or the broader context of places and institutions. These factors form what social psychologists call the sociocultural milieu. The SLA literature on individual differences has examined several attitudes that are based on the sociocultural milieu over time.

Gardner et al. (1999) explored the role of sociocultural milieu and attitudes in early life on second language learning among university students in Canada. The authors assessed the linguistic nature of the home community, the respondents’ recollections of early experiences in second language learning, and their current attitudes and beliefs about language learning and bilingualism. The sample consisted of 109 first-year students enrolled in an introductory psychology course. The authors used a questionnaire to measure the variables of interest, and they also conducted a focus group discussion and an interview with a subsample of students and teachers. They analyzed the data using structural equation modeling.

The results supported a causal model that indicated that early sociocultural experiences influenced the respondents’ current cultural attitudes, motivation to learn a second language, and self-perceptions of second language proficiency. The results also showed that there were significant differences in the respondents’ attitudes and beliefs based on their ethnicity (French or English) and their target language (French or English). The authors concluded that sociocultural milieu and attitudes in early life have a lasting impact on second language learning outcomes. They suggested that future studies should examine the effects of these factors on different aspects of second language learning, such as communication skills, anxiety, and self-confidence.

Self-Determination Theory and Intrinsic Motivation

The socio-educational model was the first major breakthrough in L2 motivation research in the 1960s, but it faced several challenges and criticisms in the mid-1990s. Three influential reviews by Crookes and Schmidt (1991), Dörnyei (1994) and Oxford and Shearin (1994) called for a theoretical renewal of L2 motivation research. The new wave of research that emerged after these reviews shifted the focus from the amount of motivation and the role of integrativeness to the different types and qualities of motivation. Another limitation of the socio-educational model was that it paid more attention to the social milieu and its attitudes than to the classroom environment and its factors (e.g. teacher, curriculum, instructional quality) that can affect motivation positively or negatively. Many of these issues were addressed by applying self-determination theory, a comprehensive ‘macro-theory’ of human motivation developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, two psychologists from the University of Rochester in the United States. This framework examines the nature and quality of L2 learning motivation, rather than its quantity, and also considers the important motivational influences that come from the classroom micro-context.

Self-determination theory (SDT) and intrinsic motivation are closely related concepts that have been applied to second language acquisition (SLA) to explain how learners’ psychological needs, goals, and interests affect their motivation and learning outcomes. SDT is a comprehensive framework for understanding human motivation and behavior. It proposes that people have innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which are essential for their well-being and growth. When these needs are satisfied, people experience intrinsic motivation, which is the natural and inherent tendency to engage in activities that are interesting, enjoyable, and meaningful to them. Intrinsic motivation is associated with positive outcomes such as learning, creativity, performance, and psychological health (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

However, not all motivation is intrinsic. People can also be motivated by extrinsic factors, such as rewards, punishments, deadlines, or social pressure. Extrinsic motivation can vary in the degree of autonomy and self-determination it involves. According to SDT, there are four types of extrinsic motivation: external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and integrated regulation. External regulation is the lowest form of extrinsic motivation, where external contingencies or demands control behavior. Introjected regulation is a slightly higher form of extrinsic motivation, where behavior is driven by internalized pressure or guilt. Identified regulation is a more autonomous form of extrinsic motivation, where behavior is valued and accepted as personally important. Integrated regulation is the highest form of extrinsic motivation, where behavior is fully congruent with one’s values and identity (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

SDT suggests that intrinsic motivation and autonomous extrinsic motivation are more conducive to optimal functioning and well-being than controlled extrinsic motivation. Therefore, creating environments that support people’s psychological needs and foster their intrinsic motivation and self-determination is important. SDT has been applied to various domains such as education, work, health care, sports, and psychotherapy (Ryan & Deci, 2017).

Some examples of how SDT can be used in practice are:

In education, teachers can enhance students’ intrinsic motivation by providing them with choices, feedback, challenges, relevance, and collaboration opportunities. Teachers can also help students internalize their extrinsic motivation by explaining the rationale and value of learning activities and by acknowledging their feelings and perspectives (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009).
Managers can increase employees’ intrinsic motivation by offering autonomy, competence support, and positive relationships. Managers can also facilitate employees’ extrinsic motivation by aligning their goals with their values and interests and by providing them with recognition and rewards that are informational rather than controlling (Gagné & Deci, 2005).
In health care, practitioners can promote patients’ intrinsic motivation by involving them in decision making, providing them with clear and meaningful information, and expressing empathy and care. Practitioners can also support patients’ extrinsic motivation by helping them identify their personal reasons and benefits for changing their behavior and by reinforcing their progress and achievements (Ng et al., 2012).

In SLA, SDT and intrinsic motivation have been used to understand how learners’ reasons for learning a second language (L2), their attitudes towards the L2 and its speakers, their beliefs about their own ability and progress, and their social context and relationships affect their motivation and learning outcomes. For example,

Noels et al. (2020) reviewed how SDT has been incorporated in SLA research to understand language learning motivation better. They found that learners’ psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were related to their intrinsic motivation and autonomous extrinsic motivation for learning the L2. They also found that these motivational orientations were associated with positive outcomes such as communication skills, anxiety reduction, and self-confidence.
Wu et al. (2016) examined how learners’ intrinsic goal orientation (i.e., learning the L2 for personal interest or enjoyment) influenced their L2 achievement through self-regulated learning strategies (i.e., planning, monitoring, and evaluating their own learning). They found that intrinsic goal orientation was positively related to self-regulated learning strategies, which in turn were positively related to L2 achievement. They also found that intrinsic goal orientation moderated the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and L2 achievement, such that the positive effect of self-regulated learning strategies was stronger for learners with high intrinsic goal orientation than for learners with low intrinsic goal orientation.

Ushioda (2011) explored how learners’ intrinsic motivation and self-determination were shaped by their dynamic and complex interactions with their social environment. She proposed a person-in-context relational view of motivation, which emphasizes the role of agency, identity, and emotions in motivating L2 learning. She illustrated this view with a case study of a Japanese learner of English who developed a strong intrinsic motivation and self-determination for learning English through her engagement with an online community of practice.

These examples show how SDT and intrinsic motivation can provide a useful framework for understanding and enhancing L2 motivation and learning. By taking into account learners’ psychological needs, goals, interests, and social context, SDT and intrinsic motivation can help explain how learners can become more self-determined and intrinsically motivated in their L2 learning journey.

Language learning motivation

Language learning motivation is a key factor that influences the success or failure of learning a second or foreign language. It refers to learners’ reasons, goals, interests, and attitudes for learning a language, and how they affect their engagement, persistence, and achievement in language learning.

One of the earliest and most influential theories of language learning motivation is the socio-educational model developed by Gardner and his colleagues (Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Gardner, 1985). This model proposes that language learning motivation consists of two main components: integrative orientation and instrumental orientation. Integrative orientation refers to the desire to learn a language in order to communicate with and identify with the speakers of that language. Instrumental orientation refers to the desire to learn a language for practical purposes, such as academic or career advancement. The model also suggests that various social and educational factors, such as attitudes towards the target language community, cultural interest, parental encouragement, classroom climate, and teacher characteristics influence language learning motivation. The model has been widely used and tested in various contexts, especially in Canada, where it originated.

However, the socio-educational model has also faced several challenges and criticisms over time. Some of these include:

The concept of integrativeness has been questioned for its relevance and applicability in different contexts, especially where learners do not have much contact or interest in the target language community or culture (Dörnyei & Csizér, 2002).
The model has been criticized for being too static and linear, ignoring motivation’s dynamic and complex nature and its changes over time and across situations (Ushioda & Dörnyei, 2012).
The model has been accused of neglecting the role of the learner’s agency, identity, and emotions in shaping their motivation and behavior (Ushioda & Dörnyei, 2012).
The model has been challenged by newer theories and models that offer alternative or complementary perspectives on language learning motivation.

Some of these newer theories and models are:

Self-determination theory (SDT), which focuses on the quality rather than the quantity of motivation, and distinguishes between intrinsic motivation (learning for interest or enjoyment) and extrinsic motivation (learning for external rewards or pressures). SDT also proposes that learners have three basic psychological needs for autonomy (having a sense of choice and control), competence (having a sense of ability and progress), and relatedness (having a sense of connection and belonging), which affect their motivation and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
The L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), which integrates concepts from self-theory and possible selves theory to explain how learners’ motivation is influenced by their self-concept and future goals. The L2MSS consists of three components: the ideal L2 self (the image of oneself as a successful L2 user), the ought-to L2 self (the image of oneself as meeting external expectations or obligations), and the L2 learning experience (the situational influences on motivation) (Dörnyei et al., 2006).
The dynamic systems theory (DST), which views motivation as a complex and nonlinear system that is constantly changing and evolving in response to internal and external factors. DST emphasizes the role of variability, interaction, feedback, and emergence in motivation, and suggests that motivation can be best understood by examining its patterns and trajectories over time and across contexts (Dörnyei et al., 2015).

These theories and models show how language learning motivation can be conceptualized and measured in different ways, depending on the research’s focus, perspective, and purpose. However, they also share some common themes and insights, such as:

Language learning motivation is not a fixed or stable trait, but a dynamic and context-dependent construct that reflects learners’ goals, interests, values, beliefs, emotions, and identities.
Language learning motivation is influenced by various factors at different levels, such as the individual, the social, the cultural, the educational, and the situational.
Language learning motivation is related to various outcomes, such as engagement, persistence, achievement, satisfaction, and well-being.

Therefore, language learning motivation is a multifaceted and multidimensional phenomenon that requires a comprehensive and holistic approach to understand and enhance it.

One of the main challenges for language learning motivation research is to identify and address the factors that influence motivation in different contexts and situations. Some of these factors are:

The learner’s personal characteristics, such as age, gender, personality, aptitude, learning style, self-efficacy, anxiety, attitude, etc. (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015).
The learner’s social environment includes family, peers, teachers, classmates, friends, etc. (Noels et al., 2020).
The learner’s cultural background includes ethnicity, nationality, religion, values, norms, etc. (Csizér & Kormos 2009).
The learner’s educational setting includes curriculum, syllabus, methodology, assessment, feedback, resources, etc. (Gardner et al., 1999).
The learner’s target language community includes native speakers, non-native speakers, media, literature, etc. (Yashima 2002).

These factors can positively or negatively affect motivation depending on how they interact with each other and the learner’s psychological needs and goals. For example,

A learner with a strong interest in the target language culture may have a high integrative orientation and intrinsic motivation to learn the language. However, if the learner faces discrimination or hostility from the target language community, this may undermine their motivation and self-confidence.
A learner who has a high aptitude for learning languages may have a high sense of competence and achievement in language learning. However, if the learner does not receive adequate support or feedback from their teacher or peers, this may reduce their motivation and engagement.
A learner with a clear career goal requiring language proficiency may have a high instrumental orientation and extrinsic motivation for learning the language. However, if the learner does not enjoy or value the language learning process itself, this may affect their motivation and well-being.

Therefore, language learning motivation research needs to consider how these factors can be manipulated or optimized to enhance motivation and learning outcomes. For example, some possible strategies are:

Providing learners with choices, autonomy, and ownership in language learning activities and tasks (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009).
Feedback, guidance, and support enhance learners’ competence and confidence in language learning (Gagné & Deci, 2005).
Providing learners with opportunities, resources, and incentives that foster their relatedness and connection with the target language community and culture (Yashima et al., 2004).
Information, explanation, and relevance increase learners’ value and interest in language learning (Wu et al., 2016).
Providing learners with vision, inspiration, and encouragement that activate their ideal L2 self and future goals (Dörnyei & Kubanyiova, 2014).

Language learning motivation is a key factor that influences the success or failure of learning a second or foreign language. It is a complex and dynamic phenomenon that requires a comprehensive and holistic approach to understand and enhance it. Language learning motivation research has developed various theories and models that offer different perspectives and insights on motivation. However, they also share some common themes and insights, such as the role of psychological needs, goals, interests, values, beliefs, emotions, and identities in motivation. Language learning motivation research also needs to identify and address the factors that influence motivation in different contexts and situations, such as the learner’s personal characteristics, social environment, cultural background, educational setting, and target language community. By doing so, language learning motivation research can contribute to the improvement of language teaching and learning practice and policy.

Affect and individual differences

Affect and individual differences are key components influencing language learning motivation. Affect refers to learners’ emotional states and feelings towards the language learning process, while individual differences refer to learners’ unique characteristics and traits. Individual differences can include personality traits, cognitive styles, and learning strategies in this context.

Research has shown that affective factors, such as anxiety, self-esteem, and motivation, can significantly impact language learning success (Dörnyei, 2014). For example, anxiety can hinder language learning by reducing learners’ ability to process and retain new information, while motivation can enhance learning by increasing learners’ engagement and effort.

Individual differences can also play a role in language learning motivation. For instance, learners with a high need for achievement may be more motivated to succeed in language learning, while learners with a preference for analytical thinking may be more drawn to grammar-based approaches to language learning (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2002).

Moreover, learners may have different learning styles and preferences, such as visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learners. These differences can impact how learners approach language learning and what strategies are most effective for them (Dörnyei, 2005). Understanding language learners’ affective and individual differences is important for educators in developing effective language teaching strategies and creating a positive learning environment that can enhance motivation and improve learning outcomes.

Personality and L2 learning

Personality traits are believed to play a crucial role in determining individuals’ behavior, attitudes, and learning styles (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015). Several studies have explored the relationship between personality and L2 learning and have found that personality traits can impact the success of language learning (Dörnyei, 2005).

One of the most commonly studied personality traits in L2 learning is extraversion. Extraverts tend to be more sociable, outgoing, and talkative, and they often engage in social interaction as a way of acquiring language. In contrast, introverts may prefer solitary language learning activities and may feel uncomfortable in group settings. Studies have found that extraverts tend to perform better in communicative tasks and are more likely to engage in language learning outside the classroom (Dörnyei, 2005).

Another personality trait that has been linked to L2 learning is neuroticism. Neurotic individuals tend to be anxious, easily stressed, and prone to negative emotions. These individuals may have difficulty coping with the challenges of language learning and may feel overwhelmed or discouraged by their progress. However, some studies have suggested that moderate levels of neuroticism may actually be beneficial for language learning, as it can motivate individuals to work harder and strive for success (Dörnyei, 2005).

Openness to experience is another personality trait that has been linked to language learning success. Individuals who score high on this trait tend to be curious, imaginative, and open-minded. They may be more willing to take risks in their language learning and explore new ideas and perspectives. Studies have found that openness to experience positively correlates with language learning achievement (Dörnyei, 2005). In addition to these personality traits, other individual differences have been studied in relation to L2 learning, including motivation, cognitive styles, and learning strategies (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015). These factors can interact with personality traits to influence language learning success.

The relationship between personality and L2 learning is complex and multifaceted. While certain personality traits may be more beneficial for language learning than others, it is important to recognize that individuals vary in their learning styles and preferences. By understanding the role of personality and other individual differences in language learning, educators can tailor their instruction to meet the needs of their students better.

Foreign language anxiety

Foreign language anxiety is a phenomenon that has been studied extensively in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). It refers to the negative feelings and emotions experienced by individuals when using or learning a foreign language. Foreign language anxiety can manifest in a number of ways, including anxiety about speaking, listening, reading, writing, and even anxiety about language exams or tests. This can result in a wide range of negative consequences, including reduced motivation, avoidance of language learning activities, and lower language proficiency.

One of the earliest and most influential studies on foreign language anxiety was conducted by Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986). They defined foreign language anxiety as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process” (p. 128). They found that foreign language anxiety was a common phenomenon among language learners, and that it could have a significant impact on their language learning experience.

There are a number of factors that can contribute to foreign language anxiety, including individual differences, such as personality traits, and situational factors, such as the learning environment. Personality traits that have been found to be associated with foreign language anxiety include neuroticism, perfectionism, and low self-esteem (Dewaele, Petrides, & Furnham, 2008; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994). Situational factors that can contribute to foreign language anxiety include factors such as the language teacher, language difficulty, and the perceived relevance of the language to the learner (Young, 1990).

One of the most common manifestations of foreign language anxiety is anxiety about speaking. This can be particularly problematic, as speaking is often seen as the most important skill in language learning. Anxiety about speaking can lead to a range of negative consequences, including avoidance of speaking activities, reduced participation in class, and even selective mutism (Phillips, 1992). Furthermore, anxiety about speaking can have a long-term impact on language learning, as learners who are anxious about speaking are less likely to engage in conversation and practice speaking outside of the classroom.

Another common manifestation of foreign language anxiety is anxiety about language exams or tests. This can be particularly problematic in high-stakes language exams, such as the TOEFL or IELTS, which are often required for admission to universities or for employment opportunities. Anxiety about language exams can lead to reduced performance, even among learners who are otherwise proficient in the language (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992).

One important aspect of foreign language anxiety is that it can vary depending on the specific language being learned. For example, a learner might feel more anxious when learning a language with a different writing system, such as Chinese or Arabic, compared to a language with a similar writing system to their native language, such as French or Spanish. Additionally, learners who have had previous negative experiences with a language, such as being ridiculed for their pronunciation or struggling in a previous language class, may be more likely to experience anxiety when learning that language again.

Foreign language anxiety can also have a significant impact on language learners’ motivation and willingness to participate in class. Students who feel anxious about speaking in the target language may avoid participating in classroom activities or may not fully engage with the material, which can have a negative impact on their language proficiency.

However, there are a number of strategies that can be used to help language learners overcome their foreign language anxiety. One such strategy is cognitive restructuring, which involves helping learners change their negative thoughts and beliefs about language learning. This can involve challenging negative beliefs about their language proficiency and providing them with positive feedback and encouragement (Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002). Another strategy is systematic desensitization, which involves gradually exposing learners to anxiety-provoking situations and helping them develop coping strategies to manage their anxiety (Young, 1990).

Another strategy is to create a supportive and inclusive learning environment where learners feel comfortable making mistakes and are encouraged to take risks in their language use. This can be achieved through activities such as pair work or group work, where learners can practice speaking with a smaller audience before speaking in front of the whole class.

The other strategy is incorporating activities that build learners’ confidence and self-efficacy. For example, learners could be given opportunities to present information on a topic they are familiar with in the target language, or to engage in role-playing activities where they can practice using language in a less-threatening context.

It is also important for educators to be aware of the potential for foreign language anxiety and to address it proactively. For example, teachers can provide clear instructions for tasks and give students time to prepare before speaking in front of the class. They can also provide positive feedback and praise to help build learners’ confidence and reduce anxiety.

Foreign language anxiety is a common phenomenon among language learners, and can significantly impact their language learning experience. It can be caused by a range of individual and situational factors, and can manifest in a number of ways, including anxiety about speaking and anxiety about language exams. However, there are a number of strategies that can be used to help learners overcome their anxiety and achieve greater success in their language learning. It is important for language teachers and educators to be aware of the prevalence and impact of foreign language anxiety, and to provide learners with the support and resources they need to overcome it.

Polyglots

Polyglots are individuals who are proficient in multiple languages. According to an article in “The Guardian” by David Shariatmadari (2017), polyglots are not necessarily born with an innate ability to learn languages, but rather have developed their language skills through conscious effort and dedication to learning. Many polyglots have developed specific learning strategies to enhance language acquisition, such as mnemonic devices or language immersion techniques.

One well-known polyglot is Richard Simcott, who speaks over 20 languages. Simcott attributes his language learning success to his early exposure to multiple languages and his dedication to practicing and using his learned languages (Babbel Magazine, 2017). Similarly, another famous polyglot, Benny Lewis, who speaks over 10 languages, emphasizes the importance of speaking the language as much as possible, even if it means making mistakes (Lewis, 2015).

Research has shown that polyglots tend to have certain characteristics that contribute to their language learning success. According to an article in “The Psychologist” by Yan Jin and Jean-Marc Dewaele (2014), polyglots tend to be highly motivated to learn languages and have a strong desire to communicate with people from different cultures. They also tend to have a high level of cognitive flexibility, which allows them to switch between languages and adapt to different cultural contexts.

Another study by Weiwei Cai and Lin Qi (2021) examined the language learning strategies of three Chinese polyglots who speak more than 10 languages. The study found that the polyglots used various strategies such as reading extensively, watching TV shows and movies in the target language, and using online resources to practice speaking and listening skills.

Polyglots serve as role models for language learners and inspire others to develop their language skills. The study by Jin and Dewaele (2014) emphasizes the importance of motivation and cognitive flexibility in language learning, and suggests that language teachers can foster these characteristics in their students to increase their language learning success. Overall, the experiences and strategies of polyglots provide valuable insights into language learning and motivate learners to pursue their language learning goals.

The motivation of Polyglots

Polyglots, individuals who can speak multiple languages proficiently, often possess a high level of motivation to learn languages. Motivation is a key factor in language learning success, and polyglots are a prime example of how motivation can drive language acquisition. According to research, polyglots tend to have a strong intrinsic motivation to learn languages, driven by a desire to communicate with people from different cultures and to gain a deeper understanding of other cultures (Jin & Dewaele, 2014).

Polyglots also tend to be highly self-motivated and often self-directed learners who seek opportunities to practice their language skills (Babbel Magazine, 2017). For example, polyglot Richard Simcott, who speaks over 20 languages, describes himself as a “language addict” and says that he enjoys the process of learning and practicing new languages (Babbel Magazine, 2017). Similarly, polyglot Benny Lewis, who speaks over 10 languages, emphasizes the importance of setting goals and staying motivated to achieve them (Lewis, 2015).

Research has also shown that polyglots tend to use various strategies to enhance their language learning, including language immersion, mnemonic devices, and seeking out native speakers to practice with (Jin & Dewaele, 2014; Cai & Qi, 2021). Polyglots also tend to have a high level of cognitive flexibility, which allows them to switch between languages and adapt to different cultural contexts (Jin & Dewaele, 2014).

The experiences and strategies of polyglots can provide valuable insights into language learning and motivation. Language teachers can use the characteristics of polyglots, such as intrinsic motivation and self-directed learning, to foster motivation in their own students (Jin & Dewaele, 2014). For example, language teachers can encourage their students to set goals, seek out opportunities to practice, and develop a love for learning languages.

Polyglots serve as role models for language learners and provide valuable insights into language learning and motivation. Their high level of motivation and use of various learning strategies can inspire and inform language learners and teachers alike.

Problem-solving 8

Maria is a 25-year-old graduate student from Spain who is currently studying in the United States. Maria is struggling with motivation to improve her English skills, even though she knows that English proficiency will be important for her career prospects.

Maria has tried various methods to improve her English, including taking classes, reading English books, and watching American TV shows. However, she still finds it difficult to consistently motivate herself to practice speaking and writing in English.

Work with a group of three or four students, and discuss the ways to help Maria improve her motivation to practice speaking and writing in English.

Chapter Summary

This Chapter discusses the two main types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic, and how they impact language learning. The concept of integrativeness as an antecedent of motivation is introduced, which refers to the desire to learn a language in order to integrate into the culture of the target language. Self-determination theory is also discussed, which posits that the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness drives intrinsic motivation. The authors also explore how learners’ attitudes and orientations toward the target language and culture can affect their motivation. The chapter delves into affect and individual differences, including the role of personality traits in L2 learning, foreign language anxiety, and willingness to communicate.

Finally, the chapter examines the motivation and learning strategies of polyglots, individuals who can speak multiple languages proficiently, providing valuable insights into language learning and motivation. The chapter emphasizes the importance of maintaining motivation throughout the language learning process and provides insights that language learners and educators alike can apply.

Questions for reviewing the lesson

What are the two main types of motivation discussed in Chapter 8 of “Motivation in Second Language Acquisition”?
How does integrativeness affect motivation in language learning?
What is self-determination theory, and how can it be applied to language learning?
What are some of the attitudes and orientations towards the target language and culture that can impact motivation in language learning?
What are the different stages of the motivation process, and what factors can influence motivation over time?
Why is maintaining motivation throughout the language learning process important?
What can we learn from the experiences and strategies of polyglots in relation to motivation in language learning?
According to self-determination theory, how can intrinsic motivation be fostered in language learners?
What are some practical strategies for maintaining motivation in language learning?
How can language educators apply the insights provided in Chapter 8 of “Motivation in Second Language Acquisition” to their teaching practice?

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Chapter 8 covers various aspects of motivation in language learning. The chapter begins by discussing the different types of motivation, including intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and how they affect language learning. Intrinsic motivation is defined as the desire to engage in an activity for its own sake, while extrinsic motivation is driven by external factors…