Chapter 5 – Data Collection techniques

Surveys and questionnaires, interviews, observations, experiments, corpus analysis, language exams and assessments, and recording and transcription are just a few of the research techniques covered in Chapter 5 that are often employed in language education research. Each of these research techniques may be used to examine various aspects of language learning and instruction, and each has merits and weaknesses of its own. In order to understand more about learners’ attitudes, opinions, and experiences with language acquisition, surveys and questionnaires are often utilized. The viewpoints of instructors and other language education stakeholders as well as student experiences, motivations, and learning techniques may all be better understood via interviews.

While experiments may be used to evaluate the efficacy of various teaching strategies or interventions, observations can be used to acquire information on learners’ interactions and behavior in language classes. Large collections of written or spoken language data are systematically analyzed using corpus analysis, which may reveal language usage and variation trends. Recording and transcribing may provide useful information about how learners speak or write, and they can be used to pinpoint their language proficiency’s weak points. Last but not least, language exams and evaluations are often used to gauge learners’ language competency or assess the success of language education initiatives. Chapter 6 will talk about this part.

Depending on the research issue and environment, each of these research techniques may be employed alone or in conjunction with other techniques. Language education researchers must carefully weigh each strategy’s advantages and disadvantages before deciding which one(s) will best serve their objectives.

GUIDING QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What kinds of information are often gathered in studies on language instruction, and how can it be utilized to address research questions?
2. What ethical issues should be taken into account and how may they be resolved while gathering information from language instructors and students?
3. What practical factors should be taken into account when deciding on the best sample techniques and data collecting technologies for language education research?
4. What efforts may be done to reduce the danger of bias or error? How can researchers make sure the data they gather is genuine and reliable?
5. What are some possible obstacles or restrictions to gathering data in studies on language education, and how might they be overcome?
6. How do you make sure your research techniques are credible, ethical, and valid?
7. What practical factors, such as time restraints and access to participants, should be taken into account while gathering and interpreting data for language education research?

INTRODUCTION

Techniques for gathering data are a crucial component of quantitative research in language instruction. They include methodically collecting data to address research issues and put theories about language instruction and learning to the test. The information gathered may include a range of topics, such as student skill levels, attitudes toward language learning, motivation for doing so, and the efficacy of various teaching approaches.

(1) Surveys and questionnaires are helpful for gathering information on attitudes, beliefs, or other subjective experiences connected to language acquisition. They are often employed in quantitative research in language education. They may be given out to parents, instructors, students, or other interested parties; (2) Data about language learners’ experiences, viewpoints, and attitudes regarding language learning may be gathered via interviews. One-on-one interviews or focus groups with several participants might be used; (3) observations, which may provide important details on the conduct and interactions of language learners in the classroom, such as the quantity and kind of time spent on task; (4) Experiments, which are helpful for examining how various treatments or instructional strategies affect language acquisition results. For instance, a study may assess the efficiency of two distinct methods for vocabulary instruction; (5) Corpus analysis is the process of examining massive collections of spoken or written language in order to spot linguistic patterns or trends. When investigating linguistic topics like grammar, vocabulary, or discourse, this might be helpful; Language tests and assessments include standardized exams or teacher-created examinations that gauge a learner’s competency in a specific language (covered in chapter 6), as well as recording and transcribing, which may provide light on areas in which their language ability needs to be improved. Researchers must carefully assess which approach is best for their study issue and environment because each has unique strengths and limits.

Additionally, the study’s design, participant selection, and the ethical issues that are taken into account while collecting data all affect the quality of the data that is obtained. Researchers must make sure that the methods they use to gather data are ethical, legitimate, and able to generalize to the target population as a whole.

Quantitative research in language education heavily relies on data-gathering methods to get useful insights into the intricate processes of teaching and learning languages. In this session, we’ll look at the most popular data-collecting methods in language education research, their benefits and drawbacks, and how to choose and use them efficiently.

CASE STUDY

Ms. Lee teaches English in a language institute in a non-English-speaking nation. She wants to find out whether utilizing technology to teach grammar to her pupils is successful. She wants to investigate how employing technology impacts her pupils’ learning results and its advantages and disadvantages. In order to find the answers to her study concerns, Ms. Lee intends to gather and evaluate data from her pupils.

Tasks:

1. Which data gathering methods, and why, are suitable for Ms. Lee’s study? What are the traits, advantages, and drawbacks of these methods?
2. What techniques for data analysis may Ms. Lee use to examine the information gathered for her study? What statistical tests can she use to assess how well she is teaching grammar to her pupils using technology?

Give precise instances and sources to back up your suggestions.

SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES

To gather information on attitudes, opinions, and subjective experiences connected to language acquisition, surveys and questionnaires are often employed in language testing. Surveys and questionnaires offer various benefits, including simplicity of administration and the capacity to gather data from a large sample, according to Lodico, Spaulding, and Voegtle (2010).

A variety of stakeholders, including language learners, instructors, parents, or a mix of these groups, might get surveys and questionnaires. The data gathered may be utilized to better understand the language program’s advantages and disadvantages, the efficiency of the teaching methods being used, and the difficulties encountered by language learners. Importantly, surveys and questionnaires may aid in understanding the learner’s requirements and preferences, which may impact the creation and delivery of the language program.

According to Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2017), surveys and questionnaires may be created in a variety of styles, including open-ended, closed-ended, or a hybrid of the two. Closed-ended questions may generate more condensed replies that are simpler to evaluate, but open-ended questions enable participants to offer more in-depth and personal comments. Additionally, there are several methods to conduct surveys and questionnaires, from internet platforms to paper-based formats. Online surveys may facilitate data gathering from geographically distributed groups, although elderly or low-tech people may benefit more from paper-based forms.

Language education research has included a variety of surveys and questionnaires.

demographic research Demographic surveys gather data about the participant’s background, including their age, gender, and degree of education. The survey data may be better understood with the use of this information. For instance, a study on the connection between speech anxiety and perceived English language competency employed a demographic survey to acquire data on participants’ educational background and language experience.

Two examples of questions that could be included in a demographic survey questionnaire:

What is your age?

• Under 18
• 18-24
• 25-34
• 35-44
• 45-54
• 55-64
• 65 or older

What is your highest level of education completed?

• Some high school
• High school diploma/GED
• Some college/associate’s degree
• Bachelor’s degree
• Master’s degree
• Doctorate/Professional degree

These inquiries are intended to collect demographic data from survey respondents. Demographic surveys offer data on participant characteristics, and this data can be used to address issues of diversity and inclusion, better understand the perspectives and experiences of various groups of people, and better tailor programs or services to the needs of various populations.

Depending on the study’s objectives, additional questions that may be included in a demographic survey questionnaire might inquire about the participants’ gender, ethnicity or race, job status, citizenship status, and other demographic factors. It is crucial to make sure that demographic survey questions respect participants’ privacy and are sensitive to their identities.

The attitudes and views of learners regarding language acquisition are measured using attitude surveys. They may provide light on elements that can affect the success of language acquisition. For instance, a researcher looked at the views of Chinese tertiary-level English majors regarding studying English using an attitudinal survey.

Two examples of attitude queries that could be asked in a survey questionnaire for language learning:

How confident do you feel learning a new language?

• Very confident
• Somewhat confident
• Not very confident
• Not at all confident

To what extent do you enjoy speaking your target language?

• I enjoy speaking it a lot
• I enjoy speaking it somewhat
• I don’t enjoy speaking it very much
• I don’t enjoy speaking it at all

These inquiries are intended to gauge students’ views and convictions towards language acquisition. The first example evaluates students’ level of confidence in learning a foreign language, which might be crucial to their success. The second example explores how much language learners like using their target language, which may be a sign of their drive and interest in the process.

Of course, other questions may be included to an attitudinal survey questionnaire based on the research’s main topic, such as inquiries regarding learners’ perceptions of the difficulty of language acquisition, interest in the target culture, and so forth.

Self-reporting instruments: In self-assessment tests, students rate their own language proficiency. They may provide valuable insight on the perceived strengths and shortcomings of students. For instance, a researcher created a self-assessment questionnaire to investigate second-language Korean learners’ self-efficacy views and language learning methods.

A self-assessment questionnaire for language acquisition may include the following two examples of self-assessment questions:

How well do you think you can grasp the spoken word in your target language?

• Advanced
• Proficient
• Intermediate
• Beginner

How comfortable are you expressing yourself in written form in your target language?

• Very comfortable
• Somewhat comfortable
• Not very comfortable
• Not at all comfortable

Learners are asked to evaluate their own language skills in a variety of contexts, including writing and listening. To reflect on one’s own learning progress, pinpoint areas of strength and weakness, and establish practical learning objectives, self-assessment may be a helpful tool.

Depending on the research’s main objectives, additional questions on grammatical correctness, pronunciation, vocabulary mastery, and other topics may be added in a self-assessment questionnaire.

Needs assessment surveys Needs analysis surveys are designed to pinpoint the precise language requirements that learners have in certain situations. As an example, Rogers and Seigfried (2004) performed a requirements analysis survey to determine the students’ English language needs. This pilot study’s objective was to further our understanding of fundamental computer forensics concerns. Participants in the research were asked to indicate the top five problems with computer forensics using an online survey approach. An open-ended text box was used to complete the survey by a total of 60 respondents. According to the survey, education, training, and certification-related issues were mentioned the most (18%), while a lack of money was mentioned the least (4%). These findings are in line with research done previously in the field of law enforcement (Stambaugh, Beaupre, Icove, Cassaday, Williams, 2001). According to the results, the area of computer forensics is fragmented and lacks a national framework for developing training curricula or a benchmark for professional certification. The research also draws attention to the critique that computer forensics’ concentration on practical features may be at the price of basic ideas. The paper ends with suggestions for further research and ramifications of the results.

A needs analysis survey questionnaire for language acquisition might include the following two questions, as examples:

What type(s) of situations do you often utilize your target language in?

• Academic/study purposes
• Social interactions with native speakers
• Work-related purposes
• Travel/leisure purposes
• Other (please specify)

What specific language skills do you need to improve for your current or intended academic or professional goals?

• Listening comprehension
• Speaking fluency/pronunciation
• Academic writing skills
• Business correspondence skills
• Other (please specify)

These questions aim to identify learners’ specific language needs and goals within their particular context(s) of language use. Needs analysis can help instructors or curriculum designers develop language programs and materials that are tailored to learners’ goals, interests, and needs.

Other questions that could be included in a needs analysis survey questionnaire might address learners’ current language proficiency, preferred learning styles, priorities for language learning, or the challenges they face in their language learning experience.

Feedback questionnaires: Feedback questionnaires gather feedback from learners or teachers on a specific language program or course. They can help identify areas for improvement or ways to make language learning more enjoyable.

Two examples of questions that could be included in a feedback questionnaire:

How satisfied are you with the quality of instruction you received in this course?

• Very satisfied
• Somewhat satisfied
• Neutral
• Somewhat dissatisfied
• Very dissatisfied

What did you like best about the course, and why?

• (Open-ended response)

With the use of these inquiries, instructors want to understand more about how well students are doing in the course as well as their overall contentment. Feedback forms may provide insightful information about the opinions and ideas of learners for course enhancement.

The efficacy of the course materials or the teacher’s communication abilities are only two examples of other questions that might be asked of students as part of a feedback form. Feedback surveys may also be used to get feedback on certain activities or events, such a training course or a workshop for professional development, and they can be used to assess the success of the activity or event.

In general, surveys and questionnaires provide a rather simple and effective technique to gather information about language development. Researchers may discover a lot about learners’ attitudes, beliefs, abilities, and preferences by employing various survey and questionnaire formats. When gathering information on attitudes and beliefs connected to language acquisition, surveys and questionnaires may be helpful tools (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2017). They may provide insightful information on the requirements and preferences of stakeholders and learners, which can affect the design and planning of language programs. They may thus be used in conjunction with other techniques of language evaluation to create a thorough picture of learners’ language skills, learning processes, and results.

VALIDITY & RELIABILITY OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS

CONTENT VALIDITY

The degree to which survey questions correctly assess the construct they are intended to test is a key consideration in survey formulation. By ensuring that the survey’s questions are relevant, understandable, and comprehensive in terms of assessing the target construct, content validity may be assured. Using SPSS or other statistical software, one of the most popular techniques for assessing content validity is to calculate the Content Validity Index (CVI).

The CVI, which measures expert consensus on the applicability and intelligibility of survey questions, is often used to show content validity (Polit & Beck, 2018). The relevance and clarity of each item are rated by a panel of experts (often three to five people) on a scale that typically ranges from one (not relevant/clear) to four or five (very relevant/clear).

The CVI score represents the percentage of things on which the experts concur, with a value of 1 denoting complete expert agreement. The number of items that the experts regarded relevant or clear is divided by the total number of items to arrive at the CVI score for the survey or questionnaire questions. According to Lynn (1986), adequate content validity is defined as a score of 0.8 or above.

An example of how to compute the CVI using SPSS is provided below:

Consider a scenario where a researcher is creating a poll to gauge parental views regarding immunization. A panel of three experts has been chosen by the researcher to assess the appropriateness and clarity of each of the survey’s 20 questions. Each item is graded from 1 to 4, with 4 being the highest level of relevance and clarity.

The researcher inputs the data into SPSS once the experts have scored each item, then performs the analysis by following these steps:

Select “Descriptive Statistics” under the “Analyze” option at the top of the screen.

Select the variables for the things being assessed by clicking “Frequencies” and then clicking “Variables.”

“Statistics” is checked; choose “Mean” and “Standard Deviation” from the drop-down menus.

By dividing the total number of questions by the number of things judged relevant/clear (scores of 3 or 4), you may get the CVI score.

Consider the scenario where 16 out of the 20 elements were judged as important or clear by the experts, resulting in a CVI score of 0.8 (16/20). This result shows that the survey’s content validity is high enough to be used to future study.

In conclusion, using SPSS to calculate the CVI is a useful technique for assessing a survey’s or questionnaire’s content validity. Researchers may make sure their survey is correctly measuring the intended construct by gauging expert consensus on the relevance and intelligibility of the survey questions. For proving content validity, a CVI score of 0.8 or above is often deemed adequate..

RELIABILITY

In order to acquire consistent and trustworthy data, which is necessary for doing significant research, dependability must be established. Test-retest reliability and internal consistency reliability are two frequently used techniques for determining dependability. The consistency and stability of the survey or questionnaire measures across time or across several raters are referred to as test reliability.

The degree of consistency between findings from the same survey or questionnaire given again to the same set of participants with a certain time delay is measured by test-retest reliability. This technique assesses the survey’s or questionnaire’s consistency over time. Internal consistency reliability assesses the consistency of the findings from various survey or questionnaire questions. This approach looks at how closely the items measure the same concept.

Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) are widely used methods to test the internal consistency of surveys and questionnaires. Cronbach’s alpha is a measure of internal consistency reliability that shows the degree to which the items in a survey or questionnaire are related to each other. It measures how closely related a set of items in a survey or questionnaire are as a group. Cronbach’s alpha ranges from 0 to 1, with values closer to 1 indicating higher internal consistency.

An example of calculating Cronbach’s alpha using SPSS is as follows:

1. Navigate to the “Variable View” in SPSS and label each variable item consistently.
2. Select the “Analyse” tab at the top of the screen and choose “Scale”.
3. Select the variables being studied, and click on the “Statistics” button.
4. Tick the box beside “Cronbach’s alpha” and click “OK”.

The ICC is a test-retest reliability measure used when the same participants complete the survey or questionnaire on two different occasions. The ICC measures the degree of consistency between the responses of the same individuals across two different time points. It ranges from 0 to 1, with values closer to 1 indicating higher test-retest reliability.

An example of calculating the ICC using SPSS is as follows:

1. Navigate to the “Data View” in SPSS and prepare the two time points as separate variables.
2. Select the “Analyse” tab at the top of the screen and choose “Correlate”.
3. Select the variables and choose “Two separate variables,” then click on “Options”.
4. Select “Means and Standard deviations” in the options dialog and then tick the box next to “Intraclass Correlation Coefficient”.
5. Click on “Continue”, then “OK”.

In conclusion, testing the reliability of surveys and questionnaires is vital in ensuring that the data collected are accurate and reliable. Test-retest reliability and internal consistency reliability are commonly used methods for measuring reliability, and Cronbach’s alpha and ICC have commonly used tools for conducting these assessments. By utilizing these methods along with SPSS tools, a researcher can establish the reliability of their survey or questionnaire and ensure that the data collected are consistent and reliable.

OBSERVATIONS

Observations are a valuable source of data in educational research, particularly in understanding language learners’ behaviors and interactions within classroom settings. Observations can provide contextual information, allowing for the collection of rich and detailed data about language learning, such as the amount of time spent on tasks, the types of activities engaged in, and levels of student participation (Richards & Lockhart, 1994).

Observation-based studies usually involve a researcher observing and recording the activities and behaviors of language learners in a classroom, typically using a predetermined observation protocol or checklist. These checklists can be developed based on categories, such as language production, interaction patterns or features of classroom activities. The researcher might, for example, observe the amount of time each student speaks, the types of questions they ask, or the types of activities that the teacher is using in class.

One advantage of observation-based research is the rich data generated by the process. For example, Mudiono (2022) aims to investigate the use of social media in teaching language courtesy to elementary school children. The study examines the existing research on language etiquette, social media, and their relationship with language acquisition. It proposes a framework for teaching language civility through social media and offers guidelines for its implementation in elementary schools. The research design employs observation for quantitative descriptive research. From January to August 2022, the study analyzed 1,200 WhatsApp conversations between students and teachers, as well as among students, using both private WhatsApp and WhatsApp groups. Sixty pupils also responded to a questionnaire. The findings indicate that students show more respect for the politeness principle when communicating in writing with professors and peers, compared to when they violate the principle. However, the level of politeness in elementary school students’ language needs significant improvement. Greetings, message content, closing greetings, slang phrases, standard and non-standard abbreviations, and punctuation were the areas where impoliteness was most prevalent. Therefore, it is essential to teach elementary school children language courtesy.

An example of an observation-based study in language learning was conducted by Santos (2016). The objective of this study was to investigate the implementation of a peer-observation program in an extension language school in Hong Kong. The study aimed to assess teachers’ perspectives on the effectiveness of the program in enhancing their teaching practice, examine how teachers perceived the program after participating in it, and suggest strategies to improve the program. Data was gathered from six teachers who underwent the peer observation program through interviews. The findings indicated that peer observation was a useful tool for continuous professional development, particularly in language education. However, some teachers were apprehensive about the practical aspects of peer observation due to the sensitivity involved. The study also suggested that if the peer observation approach is well designed, it can generate enthusiasm among teachers.

OBSERVATION CHECKLIST

Here is an example of a predetermined observation protocol or checklist:

1. Classroom Information

• Class size
• Lesson type (e.g., grammar, conversation, reading/writing)
• Duration of the lesson
• Time of day

2. Teacher Observation

• Verbal interaction/approachability of the teacher
• Classroom management skills of the teacher
• Teacher language proficiency
• Use of questioning techniques
• Instructional approach (e.g., student-centered, teacher-led)

3. Student Observation

• Participation level
• On-task behavior
• Student attitude and motivation towards learning
• Group interactions during activities
• Use of target language

4. Classroom Activity Observation

• Type of activity (e.g., group discussion, role-play, debate)
• Language focus (e.g., vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation)
• Use of technology in the classroom
• Classroom materials used (e.g. textbook, multimedia, handouts)
• Use of student output (e.g., group or pair work, oral or written output)

Utilize this checklist to organize classroom observations, capture information in accordance with the aforementioned categories, and promote consistency across various observations. Always remember to assess the checklist in light of the particular research questions and change the categories as required.

For triangulation purposes, observation data is most effective when combined with other types of data collecting. It’s crucial to keep in mind that observations are not objective and that an observer’s judgment of a behavior or activity may be influenced by personal experiences or prejudices. In order to strengthen the dependability of the data, it is useful to establish inter-rater reliability by having many observers use the same checklist and making sure they interpret and record the data identically.

In conclusion, observations enable researchers to get thorough data regarding classroom activities and student behaviour, which is useful for research on language learning. Observation approaches may highlight interaction and behavior patterns that other data gathering methods might miss. Therefore, as part of their data collecting approach, researchers studying language acquisition should think about using observational techniques.

EXPERIMENTS

In order to better understand the impact of various treatments or teaching strategies on language learning outcomes, experiments are an important research tool in the field of language education. To enable the research of causation, experiments follow a standardized methodology that comprises a treatment group and a control group. They may be carried out in a variety of places, such as language labs, internet settings, or classrooms. Quantitative research designs were covered in more depth and with more detailed examples in Chapter 4.

By methodically adjusting one variable while accounting for others, experiments are excellent in determining the causal connections between variables. The success of two distinct teaching strategies, the influence of feedback on learner outcomes, or the effect of language immersion programs on language acquisition are some real-world examples of language classroom scenarios.

For instance, a research by Lai and Chen (2021) sought to investigate the impact of PC and virtual reality (VR) gaming on vocabulary acquisition and students’ emotional perception. The VR or PC group was randomly allocated to thirty Grade 12 high school students. The identical game, Angels and Demigods, was played by both groups, however the VR group utilized an Oculus Go while the PC group did not. In order to compare performance, the research employed language translation and recognition pretests, posttests, and delayed posttests. It also included a questionnaire to find out how the participants felt about the therapy. In assessments of translation and recognition, the vocabulary knowledge of both groups improved. On the vocabulary translation delayed posttest, the VR group outperformed the PC group by a substantial margin. According to the questionnaire, both groups of students liked playing the game and were open to using it as a vocabulary-learning aid.

Researchers may also use experiments to investigate the connection between various language acquisition stages and specific domains, such reading or writing abilities. One experimental research was conducted by Al-Jarf in 2021 with the aim of using brief, simplified e-books to aid struggling freshmen EFL students in improving their reading abilities. Two student groups, an experimental group and a control group, participated in the research. While the control group read paper books on their own, the experimental group engaged in group e-book reading activities. Each group read a chapter and performed writing assignments. The experimental group participated in web conferences for online discussions, while the control group engaged in in-person conversations with the instructor. Results from the post-test revealed that, in comparison to the control group, the experimental group had significantly improved its reading abilities. According to the research, student-centered activities, active engagement and practice, interactions among students, a safe space for making errors, and encouragement from the teacher and peers all contributed to kids’ growth in reading. The research comes to the conclusion that helping struggling freshmen EFL students improve their reading abilities by supplementing in-class reading teaching with substantial collaborative e-book reading activities is helpful.

In order to modify important factors and compare groups, experiments are an essential tool in the study of language acquisition outcomes. When examining the effects of interventions or establishing causal links between variables, experiments are very useful. They may be carried out in a variety of contexts, including conventional classrooms or online settings, and they can provide very insightful information about language learning approaches.

CORPUS ANALYSIS

To find patterns or trends in language use, corpus analysis is a research technique that includes examining enormous collections of spoken or written language. Language from spoken language, academic writing, and social media may all be included in corpora. The findings of corpus analysis may be used to explore several facets of language learning, including language competency, vocabulary growth, and discourse analysis. Corpus analysis can offer descriptive or explanatory research.

Mushtaq et al.’s (2019) corpus analysis is one example. This study’s goal was to pinpoint the specific mistakes intermediate-level students made while composing papers. A corpus of essays written by 70 students in Grades 12 in an area in Central Punjab, Pakistan, were created for the research. 13 primary category codes that include problems in prepositions, sentence structure, spelling, word choice, and punctuation were used to examine the corpus. Antconc 3.4.4.0 was used to conduct the analysis. The findings revealed that spelling and verb use problems were the two most typical faults. Additionally, it was discovered that the kids struggled with word choice and punctuation. According to the study’s findings, intermediate-level students commonly make mistakes that may be related to their limited grammatical understanding.

Let’s say a study looked at how English second language learners picked up vocabulary. The research examined the frequency and context of the target vocabulary using a corpus of reading materials. The research revealed information on the frequency, collocates, and grammatical patterns that affected pupils’ vocabulary learning.

A researcher’ study aimed to investigate the vocabulary acquisition of English second language learners by exploring the frequency, collocates, and syntactic patterns of target vocabulary in a corpus consisting of reading texts. The target words were identified in the corpus based on their frequency and level of difficulty, focusing mainly on words that were considered low-frequency and had a lower level of familiarity. The corpus used in the study comprises various genres of texts, including academic journals, newspaper articles, and fiction.

To conduct the analysis, the study first identified the target words in the corpus and extracted all occurrences of these words along with their surrounding contextual information. Contextual information is essential to understanding how the target words were used in various contexts with different collocations, grammatical patterns, and genres.

The study analyzed the data using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The quantitative methods used were frequency analysis, collocational analysis, and concordance analysis, while qualitative methods included categorizing the words’ syntactic patterns and identifying the contextual usages of the words.

Frequency analysis, which is a common method used in corpus analysis, involves counting the frequency of target words and determining how often they were used within the corpus. The collocational analysis identified common patterns of co-occurrence by examining the words that occurred together with the target vocabulary. This allowed researchers to understand how different words relate to the meaning of the target vocabulary. Additionally, by using concordance analysis, the study identified the syntactic patterns of the target words in different genres and contexts, which helped provide a more detailed and nuanced understanding of the words’ meanings and usages.

The results of the analysis showed that the frequency of occurrence and collocates of the target vocabulary varied significantly across different genres of texts. The syntactic patterns of the words also varied depending on the genres, indicating that learners should be exposed to different types of texts to acquire advanced vocabulary systematically. The study suggests that low-frequency target vocabulary was more likely to co-occur with specific collocations, and these collocations depended on the genre of the text. Thus, the insights provided from the corpus analysis highlighted that knowing what words are target vocabulary is insufficient; students also need to learn how to use collocates of target vocabulary effectively to communicate their intended message.

In conclusion, the researcher’s study illustrates how corpus analysis can provide valuable insights into vocabulary acquisition factors, specifically for Chinese second language learners. The quantitative and qualitative analysis methods of corpus analysis provided a detailed and nuanced understanding of the target vocabulary’s frequency, collocates, and syntactic patterns, which would allow researchers to design more effective vocabulary instruction in their teaching practices.

conversation refers to linguistic patterns and structures that go beyond sentences, and corpus analysis may be used to investigate conversation. Discourse analysis may help study better grasp the complexity of language usage by revealing how language is used to create meaning in conversation. For instance, Baker (2012) did a corpus-based discourse analysis and makes the case that adding corpus linguistics methods to critical discourse analysis may improve the validity and dependability of study results. The authors use a recent study that looked at how Muslims and Islam were depicted in British publications to demonstrate this point. The research finds that, compared to “moderate” or “strong” conviction, the phrase “extreme belief” was more often linked with Muslims. The findings also reveal variances in how Muslims were portrayed by other publications, with The People designating Muslims more often than The Guardian did. However, the authors stress that in order to assess what is deemed to be acceptable frequencies for these statistical patterns, researchers must still use critical judgment.

By allowing researchers to examine huge amounts of linguistic data to spot patterns and trends in language usage, corpus analysis plays a crucial part in the study of language acquisition. In descriptive, explanatory, and evaluative research, corpus analysis may provide useful information on a variety of linguistic topics. However, researchers should be aware of the drawbacks of corpus analysis, such as problems with the representativeness of the sample data, which might be skewed in certain situations. As a result, researchers should carefully choose the most relevant corpus for their research topic.

RECORDING AND TRANSCRIPTION

A study technique known as recording and transcription records the spoken or written output of language learners and then transcribes it for examination. This approach is often utilized in language education research to provide insightful data on the progression of learners’ language skills.

Researchers employ a variety of techniques, such audio or video recordings, to capture language learners’ speech or interaction while capturing their spoken output. It is possible to record conversations, oral presentations, and classroom exercises. Following that, the recordings are “transcribed,” or transformed from spoken to written form. Both human and automated transcription methods are available, including voice recognition software.

Similar to this, researchers may employ a variety of instruments to record students’ written compositions, including writing tablets, screen recording software, keyboard logging, and keyloggers. The captured information is subsequently converted into textual form, which enables researchers to thoroughly examine students’ work.

There are various benefits to using recording and transcribing in language education research. In the beginning, it offers factual information that can be carefully examined to spot trends and places where language learners might improve. Second, it enables comparisons between learners’ language usage and growth through time, which sheds light on how successful language training is. Thirdly, it may be used to assess the effects of various instructional strategies and resources on language acquisition.

An investigation on the impact of form-focused training on the growth of students’ pragmatic competence, for instance, was carried out by three researchers using audio recordings of learners’ oral presentations. To determine student language usage patterns, including mistakes and development, the recordings were transcribed and evaluated. The findings demonstrated that form-focused education had a favorable influence on students’ pragmatic ability.

The study conducted by the researchers aimed to investigate the effects of form-focused instruction on the development of EFL learners’ pragmatic competence. The study employed the pretest-posttest design, with two groups of EFL learners: an experimental group that received form-focused instruction and a control group that did not. The researchers used audio recordings of learners’ oral presentations to collect data on the learners’ language use and development.

To collect the data, the learners in the experimental group received form-focused instruction on pragmatic competence, which involved explicit teaching and practice of pragmatic rules and strategies. The learners in the control group received instruction on general English language skills but did not receive explicit instruction on pragmatic competence.

The researchers collected audio recordings of learners’ oral presentations before and after the instruction. The audio recordings were transcribed and analyzed to identify learner language use patterns, including errors and development. The analysis focused on learners’ use of linguistic features related to pragmatic competence, such as politeness markers, hedging devices, and discourse markers.

The results of the study showed that form-focused instruction had a positive impact on learners’ pragmatic competence. The learners in the experimental group showed significant improvement in their use of pragmatic features compared to the control group. The researchers found that the explicit teaching and practice of pragmatic rules and strategies in the experimental group facilitated learners’ acquisition of pragmatic competence.

In conclusion, the study conducted by the researchers used audio recordings and transcription as research methods to investigate the effects of form-focused instruction on the development of EFL learners’ pragmatic competence. The study highlights the importance of explicit teaching and practice in the acquisition of pragmatic competence and demonstrates the value of audio recordings and transcription as research methods in language education research.

Assume that the researchers wanted to examine how collaborative writing affected the writing quality and revision habits of EFL learners. In order to find trends in the writing and revision habits of the students, the recorded data were transcribed and examined. The findings demonstrated that students’ writing quality and revision practices were favorably improved by collaborative writing.

The study aimed to investigate the effects of collaborative writing on EFL learners’ writing quality and revision behaviors. To collect data on learners’ writing processes, the researchers used screen recordings and keystroke logging, which allowed them to capture learners’ writing activities and track their keystrokes during the writing task.

The study employed the pretest-posttest design, with two groups of EFL learners: an experimental group that participated in collaborative writing activities and a control group that wrote individually. The learners in both groups were asked to write an argumentative essay in English.

The researchers recorded the learners’ computer screens and captured their keystrokes using specialized software during the writing task. The screen recordings and keystroke logs were transcribed and analyzed to identify patterns in learners’ writing and revision behaviors.

The analysis of the recorded data focused on several aspects of learners’ writing and revision processes, including the number and types of revisions made, the amount of time spent on revision, and the quality of the final essays. The researchers also examined the learners’ interactions during the collaborative writing sessions to identify patterns in their collaborative behaviors.

The results of the study showed that collaborative writing had a positive impact on learners’ writing quality and revision behaviors. The learners in the experimental group made more revisions and spent more time on revision than the learners in the control group. The collaborative writing also led to higher-quality essays, as measured by the scores assigned by trained raters.

In conclusion, the study investigated the effects of collaborative writing on EFL learners’ writing quality and revision behaviors. The study provides insights into the potential benefits of collaborative writing in language education and demonstrates the value of using technology-based methods to collect data on learners’ writing processes.

In conclusion, recording and transcribing is a useful research technique in language education research that offers thorough and unbiased information on how language learners use and improve their language. It enables academics to pinpoint gaps in language learners’ competency and gauge the success of language training.

PROBLEM-SOLVING

Problem: Finding efficient data gathering methods to track the language growth of their pupils is a challenge for language teachers. The instructor has tried a number of techniques but hasn’t been able to locate one that yields precise and helpful data. List the measures you would take to resolve this issue.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

The book’s fifth chapter examines the different research techniques often used in studies of language teaching. These techniques include polls and questionnaires, discussions, fieldwork, experiments, corpus analysis, testing and evaluations of language proficiency, and recording and transcribing. Each approach may be used to examine various facets of language learning and instruction, each with its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Researchers must carefully weigh the benefits and drawbacks of each strategy before deciding which one(s) would best serve their objectives. Researchers may employ one or more of these techniques alone or in combination, depending on the study issue and setting.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEWING THE LESSON

1. What are the various kinds of data gathering methods that are often used in quantitative studies on language learning?
2. How can researchers make sure the methods they use to gather data are accurate and valid?
3. What are the benefits and drawbacks of questionnaires and surveys in language education research?
4. What practical factors should be taken into account when choosing participants for language education research?
5. What are the benefits and drawbacks of utilizing experimental designs in research on language education?
6. How can data gathered from language exams and evaluations be properly analyzed and interpreted by researchers?
7. How may corpus analysis be used to collect information for studies on language education?
8. What are some helpful hints for capturing and transcribing the spoken or written output of language learners?
9. What benefits and drawbacks come with employing interviews as a data collection method in language education research?
10. How can data gathered from observations of language instructors and students be successfully analyzed and interpreted by researchers?
11. What are the many language test and assessment formats that are often used in language education research, and what are their advantages and disadvantages?
12. How can academics utilize information gathered from many sources to provide a more thorough analysis of language teaching and learning procedures?

REFERENCES

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Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2017). Research methods in education. routledge.

Lodico, M. G., Spaulding, D. T., & Voegtle, K. H. (2010). Methods in educational research: From theory to practice. John Wiley & Sons.

Lai, K. W. K., & Chen, H. J. H. (2021). A comparative study on the effects of a VR and PC visual novel game on vocabulary learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1928226

Lynn, M. R. (1986). Determination and quantification of content validity. Nursing Research, 35(6), 382-385.

Mudiono, A. (2022). Teaching Language Politeness through social media for the Elementary School Students. Eurasian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(3), 32-44.

Mushtaq, M., Mahmood, M., Kamran, M., Ismail, M., Ahmad, M., & Adeel, H. (2019). A corpus-based analysis of EFL learners’ errors in written composition at intermediate level. Indian Journal of Natural Sciences, 9(52), 16842-16852.

Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2008). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Richards, J. C., & Lockhart, C. (1994). Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge University Press.

Rogers, M. K., & Seigfried, K. (2004). The future of computer forensics: a needs analysis survey. Computers & Security, 23(1), 12-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2004.01.003

Santos, L. (2016). Foreign Language Teachers’ Professional Development through Peer Observation Programme. English Language Teaching, 9(10), 1-39.

Surveys and questionnaires, interviews, observations, experiments, corpus analysis, language exams and assessments, and recording and transcription are just a few of the research techniques covered in Chapter 5 that are often employed in language education research. Each of these research techniques may be used to examine various aspects of language learning and instruction, and each…